Essays on Partner Violence

Introduction

Child abuse and maltreatment is a broad term that refers to different types of abuses that children may experience in their environment. Abuses and maltreatment may come in the form of neglect, exposure to violence, physical abuse, sexual abuse and emotional abuse. Children are the most vulnerable segment of society when it comes to abuse and neglect. Being unable to protect and care for themselves, some children are subjected to abuses and maltreatment, most often, by family members themselves. The perpetrators of abuse and maltreatment of children may also vary. Aside from parents and siblings, children can also be ...

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Independent Variables.7

Research Questions..8 Hypothesis....8 Conclusion..11

Introduction: Domestic violence: profile of an offender

In the past, an act of domestic violence was not considered as a matter that merits the engagement of the law. Though men have pummeled, maltreated, and molested their intimate partners for years, the common comprehension of society was that abuse and maltreatment of women was as a part of the marriage. It was only to the end of the 1970s that domestic violence was understood as a criminal offense that warranted the involvement of the criminal justice system. However, there has been much contention as to the establishment of a general, universally accepted ...

[Your instructor's name] [The course] [The date]

There is, unfortunately, quite a big number of perplexing issues in the modern society. The problem of homelessness, which is one of the most acute ones, interests me in several aspects. Due to various reasons, more and more people become homeless, and while it seems that the problem should be eradicated, it progresses. The reason why I wanted to investigate into this matter was because this problem concerns many people in the USA. According to the summary by National Alliance to End Homelessness, in the recent years generally nineteen people out of ...

Intimate partner violence (IPV) or domestic violence is a situation in which one partner in a relationship physically or emotionally abuses his/her partner (Fredriksen-Golden, 2011). Physical abuse could be characterized by beatings while the emotional aspect of it may include threats that instill fear in the victim. In most cases, it has been women who have become victims of IPV over the years. However, in recent times, the tide has changed, and men too have been placed on the receiving end of IPV (Rolling & Brosi, 2009). Causes of IPV are many and range from individual factors to societal factors. ...

Discussion of the problem and it’s prevalence in the country

A healthy relationship is defined by various factors, these include proper communication between partners, the existence of mutual trust and respect and most importantly, both partners should be able to understand each other, appreciate and embrace their differences (Brown & Bulanda, 2008). These conditions are necessary to ensure that partners are always in a position to resolve any matters arising between them in an amicable and rational manner without any violence. This scope of activities require certain skills that are unfortunately not found amongst the young adults; it’s as a result of lack of these skills amongst young adult ...

Men’s violence in an intimate relationship from a feminist perspective

Domestic violence and violence in an intimate relationship is an age-long phenomenon. This paper argues that men’s violence in an intimate relation from a feminist perspective mainly because of social norms of male superiority and feminine learned weakness as well as alcohol abuse in most homes. According to feminist views, men will inflict violence when women show weakness and are unwilling to report their case to the law or seek help from getting abused in an intimate relationship. Men have been indulged in domestic violence making their wives subjects of abuse and out of shame or humiliation, women ...

Abstract

Domestic violence is a worldwide issue. In 1993, the United Nations General Assembly created a declaration to help eliminate violence against women. Since then, ample research has been conducted on both the effects and individuals who conduct domestic violence. Over the years, researchers have discovered that certain personality traits that become apparent in childhood are also apparent in perpetrators of domestic violence. These studies suggest that children and adolescents who display these personality traits should be placed in early intervention treatment in order to limit the likelihood of domestic violence abuse during adulthood. The following discusses five different personality ...

Socialization is the process of transforming a child into a responsible individual aware of his or her roles and position in the society by educating them on the social norms, laws of the environment and customs. It promotes the holistic development of a child. It also helps the child learn how to relate to others by learning various aspects of communication as well as how to respect and appreciate others as well as their cultures (Crespi 3).

What are Gender Roles?

Gender roles are society norm sets that show what kind of behavior is accepted for a person based on their sex. Thus, ...

Family violence occurs for various reasons. However, its effects are non-selective and manifest in the children, the family unit, and the community at large. Child abuse is one of the forms of family violence. Child abuse can manifest through the physical, emotional and sexual abuse or neglect by the parents or caregivers. Lamont (2010) underscores the fact that child abuse amounts to a public and social problem. Child abuse results in adverse consequences during the childhood phase and through adolescence. In addition to the perspectives above, the author also explores the different forms of child abuse, the factors that ...

Half the House Book Review

Introduction Half the House: Memoir is a cutthroat masterpiece by Richard Hoffman, and it was first published in the year 1995. The book was then republished in 2005 with an afterword added to the memoir in 1996. Hoffman claimed that the book was nonfiction and the scenes described in the book were experiences he underwent in his childhood life. However, the names of the characters have been altered safely for the name of the football coach that had sexually molested him in his childhood. The book describes the hardships Hoffman faced in the hands of the ruthless society, his ...

Domestic violence is a willful behavior where one person controls the other, which can take the form of abuse, intimidation, or assault. This behavior is systematic that can sometimes include psychological or objective violence. In domestic violence, the pattern of control and power is always perpetrated by one intimate partner against another, but the severity and frequency of the violence may vary dramatically. It is an epidemic that has affected persons of every community, whether they are from different country, have different ages, sex, religion, gender, economic status or sexual orientation. It has been observed that the victim has ...

The connection between alcohol consumption and domestic violence is one of vital importance in society. Modern culture has found a way to solve many of society’s ills, but the dangers that women and children face from the men in their lives are still all too real. The articles under consideration in this paper look at the correlations between intoxication and domestic violence. The methodologies and studies have similarities and differences with implications on their outcomes. However, the general purpose of both is to look for connections that social planners and public health planners can use to improve public education ...

Domestic violence is also known as domestic abuse, intimate partner abuse and intimate partner violence. It is defined as a type of maltreatment that occurs in a romantic relationship . However, it is not isolated only between heterosexual relationships but also among homosexual partners. In fact, there are studies which suggest that the statistics of domestic violence among homosexual relationship continues to exist because majority of homosexuals who are victims of domestic abuse are personally restrained by their fear of being further humiliated or condemned. In the early part of 2014, as documented by MedicineNet.com approximately 2 million women ...

Literature review

Over the past number of years, the issue of violence has generated a lot of concerns in the workplace. Different sectors experience different levels of workplace violence with 85 percent of non-fatal assaults occurring in retailing and service industries. The health care sector falls under the service industry and workers in this sector are at higher risks of workplace violence. It becomes hard to estimate the true incidence of violence towards health workers because of different definitions and data collection systems (Hartley, D., & Ridenour, 2011 #1).

Violence among health workers triggers most psychological and physical outcomes. Some of the ...

The Summit on Community Resilience, Intervention, Prevention, and Training (SCRIPT) conference took place between July 16th and 17th 2015 at the California Endowment Center (Los Angeles, CA). The purpose of SCRIPT was to raise community awareness regarding male survivors of violence and abuse by presenting a variety of topics, including sexual abuse, domestic violence, community crisis interventions, hostage negotiation, bullying, survivor advocacy, and several others. I attended several interesting presentations at the SCRIPT conference that enhanced my understanding of forensic psychology in general, as well as the understanding of sex offenders and potential strategies to increase their chances of ...

Some people choose to act violently as a way of releasing feelings of frustration, desperation or anger. As such, they undermine the use of nonviolent means of dealing with their negative feelings. Violent tendencies in the United States is a profound issue among the young people. However, there is no general explanation for the increase in youth violence over the years. Several things may be responsible for violent behavior among the American youth including peer pressure, low self-esteem, low educational achievement, witnessing domestic violence, being victims of early childhood abuse among other factors that may trigger negative emotions. Youth violence has ...

Explain and categorize intimate partner violence in same sex relationships.

Intimate partner violence in same sex relationships is the same as in heterosexual relationship, in which one partner abuses the other either sexually, physically or mentally. However, the issue gets more complicated in same-sex relationships as there are some partners that have “come out” and others are “outed” by their partners. (Duke & Davidson, 2009)

What are some implications of failure to acknowledge the potential for violence in same sex relationships?

One of the implications of not acknowledging same-sex intimate partner violence is that lesbian victims find it hard to find support. As most of the domestic violence campaigns show the straight woman as the victim, it is very difficult for some people to accept that a ...

Violence against women

Research paper proposal Any act that emotionally, physically or psychologically harms a woman or a girl is violence against the woman or the girl. Despite race, religion and geographic locations, the acts of violence against women are increasing in every corner of the world. However, intimate partner violence is the most common form of violence against women and girls prevailing in the world. It is one of the serious public health concern and a threat to the women’s rights and to national development. A. The violence against women has serious health consequences like physical injuries, depression and post-traumatic stress ...

Literature Review

Sexuality and gender are social constructs, which may differ depending on the norms of society (Reis & Carothers, 2014). In a heterocentric society, certain attributes are reserved to describe either male or female individuals, with characteristics such as aggressive and strong being relegated to males and women being considered as more caring and emotional (Reis & Carothers, 2014). However, not all individuals fit neatly within the categories dictated by society and the challenges of individuals who are treated as “outliers” of society’s norm can be overwhelming, leading to emotional and physical distress, bullying, and social inequalities that have the ability to impact ...

Introduction

It has always been true that those not part of the dominant cultural group are alienated from the rest of the social environment, one way or another. Abuse among partners is common in many relationships, either heterosexual or homosexual. However, many times, prejudice and discrimination are directly shown upon gay and lesbian partners, which makes it hard for them to report abuse by their partner, out of fear of failing the social stereotypes. Violence and conscious manipulation are human traits that cannot be classified based on gender. They can occur in any relationship, including among homosexual partners. Intimate partner ...

INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

I. INTRODUCTION In the course of acting as administrator of a victim advocacy agency, there are many instances in which the administrator must interact with individuals of other cultures and other backgrounds. Intimate partner violence occurs across all cultures, regardless of race, age, gender, or cultural status; however, certain societies have normalized intimate partner violence much moreso than American society has. Understanding the normalization of partner violence and the ways that this normalization can hinder women when they seek help for their problems is fundamentally important, particularly when these women are expected to act within the framework of a society ...

Most often, one of the reasons people marry is to be with someone they trust and love. They enter the relationship with the expectation of being cared for, gain security, and have positive experiences together. However, for many couples, the dream of the “happy ever after” does not become real. The realities of life set in, and the abuses happen. This can be perpetuated by either a male or a female spouse. In the succeeding sections, the topic on spousal abuse is further explored. The definition of the concept begins the discussion, and this is followed by a description about the male ...

Abstract

Social control theory obtained popularity across the 1960s which sociologists had different notions about crime. During the period, Travis Hirschi presented forth the innovative control theory rendering. This was a theory based on the existing social control concepts. The intent of this paper is to establish the links between school, family and other social aspects serve as ways of diminishing an individual’s propensity in deviant behavior.

Introduction

The social control theory maintains that crime happens when these bonds encounter weaknesses or lack sufficient establishment. The control theorists are for the fact that without the bonds, crime becomes an inevitable result ( ...

Significance of the Study

People in the society have the right to be safeguarded from personal and psychological harm, loss of property and misuse of power. The general safeguards of society is best optimized through successful corrections community and organizational management, rehabilitation and training programs, in conformity with legal and ethical permissions, offender and staff accountability, and fulfilling the basic requirements of the offenders. The counselors have a special task to shield from harm those who are reluctantly under its care and control; therefore, modern standards for health care, offender classification, due process, fire and building safety, nutrition, personal welfare, and clothing and ...

Part I

C. Discuss Cherlin’s argument for why Americans have both high rates of marriage and high rates of divorce compared to other industrialized nations. Andrew Cherlin reviewed the historical changes while noting that marriage still remained the most common and effective living arrangement for bringing up of children. However, children are more likely to grow up in single-parent families, and to experience instability of families especially minority and poor children. His view why the US has high marriage and divorce rates, which is called family metabolism, is attributed to cultural and economic forces that have continually transformed family ...

Introduction: Intimate Partner Violence is a practice that is widespread in the United States of America. Although this is classified as a crime punishable by the law, there is an increase in such practices. This paper analyzes the situation as it is in America and gives the legal position Thesis: Although the term is used to refer to violence to either party of the marriage, the victims of this abuse are always women. Violent behaviors in marriage such as stalking, raping and physical assault can all be classified under partner violence, - General description: current law There are ...

- Problem Statement The purpose of this paper is to investigate a social problem that affects women more than men. In this case, the paper seeks to investigate the case of intimate partner or domestic violence. It seeks to give an opinion on the issue today in terms of what should be a stand and level on the social problem. As such, the paper seeks to describe the problem; its causes from a theoretical standpoint and what should be done to address it. The paper is divided into three parts of the problem statement, causes and the opinion. On the description ...

Intimate Partner Abuse

Intimate Partner Abuse Violence, in either physical, mental or other forms, is a serious problem in many societies. Violence in physical form is estimated to be at 4 to 6 million per year in the US, most involving intimate partners (Rodriguez, et al., 1999). The term intimate partner abuse refers to physical, sexual, or psychological abuse perpetrated by a current or former intimate partner. While this term is gender-neutral, women are more likely to experience physical injuries and incur psychological consequences of intimate partner abuse. Intimate partner abuse refers to abuse that takes place between two individuals inside a relationship. ...

Introduction

The dynamic nature of elements surrounding family and intimacy has come to elicit curiosity among researchers (Chamberlain, 1999). There has been a hurried change in how families define themselves. In fact, the name family no longer holds the meaning that it held previously (Roseneil, 2004). New forms of families such as gay families have emerged. This has consequently led to a revolution in how children interact with their parents as well as an emergence of new parenting styles (Wajcman, 2008). The issue of intimacy is another one that has undergone significant change. New ways of being intimate have sprung up and ( ...

Intimate-Partner Violence

Intimate-Partner Violence Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious, avoidable public health concern that affects the majority of American families. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention define IPV as “abuse that occurs between two people in a close relationship.” Intimate partner refers to a former or current spouse and a dating partner (“Intimate Violence,” 2014). Intimate violence grows out of inequality within marriage (and other intimate relationships modeled on marriage) and, reinforces male power and female subordination within the home. Custody issues normally arise in cases of intimate domestic violence (McClennen, 2010). Under the law, victims of such violence and ...

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Abstract

The controversy around domestic violence is not only legal and civil issue. It is also an issue that concern’s the victim’s health and wellness. Victims of spousal abuse are prone to experience trauma following a traumatic experience. In this regards, nurses play a special role in assisting the victims of domestic violence. This paper discusses the article Intimate Partner Violence in Rural U.S. Areas: What Every Nurse Should Know and the relevance of the points presented by the authors. Keywords: Domestic violence, role of nurse, medical social worker Over the years, a plethora ...

Abstract

This paper is will discuss the case of Adam Strong. The first section of this paper will explain the offender category that concurs with the scenario client and discern the treatment considerations inherent in this category. The second section of this paper will describe the multicultural factors evident in the scenario and explain how these factors affect treatment and treatment approach. The third section of this paper will describe the treatment approach and/or programs you would use with the offender and explain why. The next section of this paper will describe the ethical and legal issues that might be ...

Violence Against Women

Violence Against Women

Question 1

Feminist researches have made important contributions to the field of survey research and the methods of measuring sexual assault and intimate partner violence. Describe the major methodological contributions of feminist researchers as well as the advantages of dedicated violence against women surveys.

Response 1

The feminist researches materialized research models that are relevant, legitimate, and popular. Both the quality and validity of the findings are beyond contentions and it produced important results that provided suitable guidelines for policies vital in the modern society. The domains and basic methodological principles are very diverse and wide. In addition, the type ...

Domestic violence has been a problem since human kind became a species. As society has progressed and philosophical movements have increased the consciousness of human kind, domestic violence in progressive circles has been condemned as the scourge that it is. While some countries and cultures, mostly in the developed world, has made great leaps in curbing domestic violence, some places, such as many countries in Africa. Domestic violence is a symptom of unequal gender power dynamics. The solution must therefore come from within the context of the African culture (Shamu, 3). Many cultures in Africa are tribal in nature and the basic ...

This critiques focuses on the study of Sundborg, Saleh-Stattin, Wändell & Törnkvist (2012) entitled Nurses’ preparedness to care for women exposed to Intimate Partner Violence: a quantitative study in primary health care. Participants of the study are nurses from primary health care centers (PHCC) in rural and urban areas of Stockholm County in Sweden. The county has 1,200 nurses serving 174 PHCCs. The target 40 PHCCs were randomly selected and of this number, one PHCC declined to participate, thus the final PHCCs involved in the study was 39. The sections below discuss specific aspects of the study pertaining ...

HIV/AIDS prevalence in Southern Africa has remained high in the last decade and it is a very important indicator of the state of the epidemic in the region. There are several demographic factors that play a critical role in the sustaining of this condition in Southern Africa and this paper will explore the correlations between these factors and the epidemics, causes and impacts of demographics on the spread and tackling of the most serious epidemic in the world. It is estimated that 24.5 million of the 34.3 million infections around the world are in Africa and in 2000 8.57% of ...

Aboriginal women are those related to intimacy for commercial purposes. They face many challenges in this line of endeavor as most of their clients or rather partners usually force them into activities that bring hurt in their lives. This paper will analyze a research conducted on aboriginal women and the activities they have gone through with their partners in comparison to non-aboriginal women. It will give more insight on the results derived from the research depending on the response the women in question gave. The paper will focus on several questions that shed more light on the research as well ...

Introduction

Domestic violence is a repeated behavior of abuse by an individual on another both in a close intimate relationship like cohabitation or marriage. Since Dmestic violence is a form of social interaction, it is studied as an issue of interest as it’s a dysfunction in interaction and communication between two people. Domestic violence has been mainly experienced by wives from their husbands, but in current times even husbands are experiencing physical and verbal abuse from their wives. Understanding it as a social problem will entail first delving into concepts like sociology and the sociological imagination and what they mean in the context of ...

Abstract

Drug addiction is not only common in men but also in women. However, it does not happen accidentally. Certain factors influence women’s engagement in drug initiation and even addiction: natural physical susceptibility; personality measure of women; peer relationships; family relationships; marital relationships; social media and marketing; discrimination; acculturation; socioeconomic condition; and victimization in sex and prostitution. These factors have different influencing ways upon women. Likewise, the effects these have upon women have varying degrees as well. Seeing these factors does not only imply knowledge of the issue, but brings forth the need to deal with it. The ...

Moffitt’s developmental theory offers dynamic overview of criminal behavior that have Risen in recent times, yet few efforts are channeled to the comprehend intimate partner Violence using developmental angle, Family, and criminological violence articles has emerged with distinctive paths; there are several reasons for crosschecking hypothesis across fields. For instance, theories built to comprehend additional and broader criminal activity, facilitate understanding of partner-violence, and expand the view of such theories. In addition, there are substantial reasons to project spousal battering fueled by factors or forces that triggers deviant behavior, low self-esteem and control, imperative and weak moral stature. ...

Introduction

Throughout history many battles and wars have been fought, but many people and societies never realized that there are other effects on the soldiers and other victims apart from the physical effect. To this end it has been observed that mental effect is another result of the war with several researchers dedicating their time to look at the phenomenon in detail. Though a number of soldiers have had the strife of facing these difficulties which remained in continuity for the rest of their lives, it has been found that they have only recently received their answers along with the ...

Domestic violence occurs when one partner tries to control the other in a marital or dating relationship. This control may be in the form of physical or emotional abuse, use of threats and isolation. Certain obstacles exist that make it difficult for domestic violence victims to end the abuse. These include; psychological entrapment, physical isolation, cultural and religious values, immigration status, threats and intimidation, social judgment fear and inadequate viable alternatives. Through public, health and legal awareness, victims can be able to overcome the effects of the abuse and start their lives afresh. Moreover, the improvement of resources in the ...

In a society, the weaker group would always demand that special treatment be accorded to them. This approach has always favoured an adoption of affirmative actions for the weaker persons in society. Women, if compared to men have been the weaker sex. History reveals a record of marginalization and mistreatment of women across societies. In fact, jurisdictions like Saudi Arabia in the Middle East are yet to grant women full rights and freedoms. However, this does not mean that women have always been the victims in every situation. Indeed, many situations exist that cast women as the villains in society. This ...

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a social reality occurring as physical, psychological or sexual abuse. Among women, and pregnant women in particular, prevalence varies by country and clinical setting but is recognized as a significant health problem. Risk factors are identified as age, socioeconomic status, minority status and marital status (Bailey, 2010). In gravid women, IPV has been associated with undesirable pregnancy outcomes arising from physical trauma, mental health issues, STD and genitourinary infections, as well as unfavorable health behaviors. To address IPV, universal screening coupled with zero tolerance policies has been recommended but current clinical practice varies across health care ...

of Adult Intimate Partner Violence of Adult Intimate Partner Violence - Bull, A. (2010, September). Childhood experiences of Appalachian female survivors of adult intimate partner violence. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 6(8), 606-611. - The basic clinical concern that underlies the decision to conduct this study is “to discover the lived experience of childhood in women who were survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV) and who were born and raised in southern Appalachia”. Furthermore, the increasing cases of violence in families in southern Appalachia is a major concern of this study. - The study is a ...

Group Therapy using Cognitive Behavioral Theory

Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) is one of the approaches used in psychotherapeutic treatment of various conditions. CBT uses an emotional cognizance process in which therapists help patience to understand the psychological influences on their behavior. During treatment, patients are taught how to identify destructive thought patterns. They are then equipped with tools that aid them in breaking bad patterns of thought and developing positive thought and will power.

Group therapy is a common form of psychotherapy in which one or more therapists treat a group of patients at the same time. Group therapy denotes any form of therapy which is delivered ...

Actions against domestic violence perpetrators by human services officials have been controversial ever since legislation deemed it a crime. The sensitivity of this issue in many occasions limits the extent to which human services personnel can intervene because ultimately families are separated either temporarily or for life. As such, the following pages of this document present a history of the phenomenon; an assessment of its sociological significance from a human services conceptual framework and evaluation of current intervention strategies in making relevant recommendations.

The effects of arresting domestic violence perpetrators

The US Center for Disease Control categorizes domestic violence as reciprocal describing perpetual confrontation of both people with each ...

1.0 Domestic violence, PTSD and women

Research has proven that battering and violence in the families are major causes of post-traumatic stress disorders among the victims (PTSD). The problem of intimate patner violence has become a very widespread calamity in the world today. It involves physical or bodily assaults, emotional distress, and traumatizing responses by one patner to another.Women in particular, form the larger population of people experiencing domestic violence. This makes them to be most vulnerable to mental disorders that result from experiencing violence, and in particular PTSD. According to a study by Loring Jones, Margaret Ughes and Ulrike Unterstaller, battered women are great victims of ...

Abstract

Undeniably, alcohol abuse in the current society has brought untold sufferings to many families. Worse still, the sufferings are left unmentioned thereby creating the foundations for proliferating the vice. Although many theories have been put forward to explain the relationships between alcohol abuse and domestic violence, no finger can be pointed to a particular factor as being the root cause of the increased cases of domestic violence in New York City. However, increased cases of domestic violence in New York City can be associated to the increasing rates of alcohol consumption. Due to recent financial crisis New Yorkers have turned ...

Battering, also referred to as spousal abuse, family violence, intimate partner violence, or simply domestic violence is a pattern or cycle of abusive behaviors in intimate relationships like marriage, cohabitation, family, or dating. It occurs in many forms such as physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, economic deprivation, intimidation, threats, passive abuse, and stalking, among others. Battering is defined as the infliction of physical or other forms of injury by one partner on the other. In the case of wife battering, the violence is inflicted by the man on the woman. Battering of women results from various factors including, ...

Sociology: Black and Blue

Black and Blue by Anna Quindlen expresses the traumatic physical and emotional encounters of a nineteen year old woman; by the name of Fran who helplessly fell in love with Bobby Benedetti subsequently becoming his wife. Domestic violence entered the relationship very early intensifying after marriage and birth of a handsome son. The situation became catastrophic. Interestingly, opens the novel with Fran at a Philadelphia train station making her way out of New York into Florida. After years of battering inclusive of verbal and physical abuse Fran was forced to make the hard decision of running away from Bobby with her ...

How Alcohol Abuse Has Increased Domestic Violence in New York City

Domestic violence remains a serious societal concern that transverses gender, race, age, and socioeconomic status. Alcohol abuse is widely known as an all-too-common problem in society (Busch-Armendariz, et al., 2010) and is a major cause of domestic violence and family disabilities in the United States. The emotional, economic, and physical costs of domestic violence on the perpetrators, victims, and those surrounding them have been documented. According to Weinsheimer et al. (2005), Alcohol is the mostly used and abused substance in the United States and the drug most commonly associated with domestic violence. The United States Department of Justice (2008) reports that ...