Essays on Glutamate

Introduction

Migraine is a common type of headache disorder which is characterized by moderate to severe recurrent headache. Migraine headaches are generally severe and could last up to 3 days, wherein the pain affects half of the head but the pain is pulsating in nature. People with acute migraine headache may have suffer from sensitivity to light, vomiting, nausea, and sensitivity to smell and sound. In some cases, the pain may become severe and worsen after physical activity. In 1/3rd of patients with migraine, a short period of visual disturbance or aura occurs which is an indication that the pain ...

Briefly discuss the absorption process and sites of biotin, folate. cobalamin, and ascorbic acid

In essence, human beings cannot synthesize biotin, and therefore the vitamin is required in water soluble form to perform the normal cellular function. The absorption process of biotin takes place in the small and large intestines (Said, 2011). The process involves the Na+ carrier that transports the vitamin in human beings. The sodium-dependent transports, also written as hSMVT is expressed in the apical membrane of the enterocytes. Folates exist as polyglutamate in the diet, which enables them to be converted to mono glutamates through an enzymatic process. The absorption process of the vitamin takes place in the intestines with ...

Q1 For the purpose of the paper five additive found in food were chosen. The chosen food additives belong to different types of additives. First picked was corn syrup, which was chosen since it is usually the additive added in soft drinks, which are being consumed in large quantities especially in the United States. The additive belongs to the group of sweeteners. It can be found in processed food, sweets, non-diet drinks, cereals, breads, pastries, candies, cookies, cakes, syrups, crackers, fruits, vegetables, ice creams, meat, salad dressings, sauces, snacks, and soups. The high-fructose corn syrup has been correlated with ...

1. Biot’s respiration named after Camille Biot is an abnormal ataxic breathing pattern, where rapid series of shallow respiration are followed by a period of apnea. In order to known how AMP kinase, knock down leads to Biot respiration in mice; it is necessary to known how AMP kinase affects respiratory rate. AMP kinase is a metabolic sensor and is activated in response to stretching of the lung alveolar cells and other stressors. During respiration, the lung goes through cycles of expansion and contraction (Budinger et al., 2008). When the alveolar cells stretch during expansion, the 5′ AMP-activated ...

Asthma

Aetiology - A combination of factors, primarily environmental and genetic factors, are believed to cause asthma - Allergens, which are airborne, cause the disease; they include pollen, mold and animal dander among others - Irritants such as smoke and dust also cause the disease - Tough stress and depression - Physical activities and particular medications can induce asthma - People with a genetic predisposition to utilize Tp helper cell can contract the disease

Pathogenesis

- Fundamentally, asthma comes in as immunological - Several factors obstruct the airway, injury of the epithelium, bronchospasm, edema, a higher ...

Oxiracetam, like piracetam and aniracetam, is a supplement belonging to racetam family. It is a brain development supplement that increases the clarity of thought, focus, concentration, and ability to store and recollect the information. It is a man-made nootropic that has gained the popularity because of its bioavailability, i.e., bodies can easily utilize it once ingested. Oxiracetam is convenient to take as it dissolves quickly in the water. Studies have revealed that oxiracetam has positively affected learning and memory of healthy animals and also of animals with cerebral dysfunction. It is also used to treat brain diseases and disorders.

Oxiracetam functions ...

Causes of ALS

method to determine the Causes of ALS Blood samples of 20 individuals will be collected to determine the cause of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). A consent form will be signed. In our study, mutations will be checked. DNA of the selected individuals, who may have higher chances of developing ALS, will be checked and genome scan will be analyzed with proper applications such as Genehunter v2.1. Polymerase-chain reactions (PCR) will be performed on DNA, and PCR products will be sequenced in the proper facilities.

Results of Causes of ALS

ALS can be hereditary and 5% to 10% of all cases of ALS are ...

Dopamine hypothesis is a theory that links schizophrenia or psychosis to the dopamine levels in the brain. This theory is derived from several clinical observations and otherwise symptom related results of medication from different patients. The significant presence of dopamine level in a patient’s brain may be the strongest link in the study of patient psychosis. However, since the theory is still in clinical studies; and other factors are now being studied in relation to the change in mental state.

There are several evidences supporting the dopamine hypothesis. Firstly, the evidence comes from pharmacological studies of a group of drug called ...

Introduction to Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a severe mental ailment that affects about one percent of the population worldwide. It is a major mental disorder that inflicts an enormous burden on the victim causing poor quality of life (Jones PB, Barnes TRE, Davies L, et al, 2006). It increases morbidity and mortality (Murray C J and Lopez A D, 1997), disrupts interpersonal connections and upsets family structures and adds substantial economic costs to the society (Freedman R, 2003). Typical symptoms of schizophrenia, include, delusions, disordered thinking, hallucinations, and bizarre speech or behavior. Though it is very rare to observe the onset of this disease ...

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS): A summary

Introduction Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a rapidly progressing neurodegenerative disease. It is also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease. It is a disease that targets the neurons (nerve cells) that control the voluntary muscles. ALS belongs to a class of neurological diseases known as the motor neuron diseases (MND). Motor neuron diseases involve the steady deterioration and death of motor neurons. Motor neurons function as the communication links between the voluntary muscles of the body and the nervous systems. These neurons are located in the brain and the spinal cord. Transmission of information and messages occurs from the motor neurons of ...

Abstract

Obesity is a heritable and genetically influenced disorder. Recent studies have proved that obesity is a biochemically driven neurological disorder. Obesity has a complex and heterogeneous genetic and phenotypic manifestation. Familial obesity is monogenic and common obesity is polygenic. Leptin and its receptor (LEPR), the α-melanocortin-stimulating hormone receptor (MC4R), pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and prohormone subtilisin/kexin type 1 (PCSK1) are some of the single genes involved in monogenic obesity. Glutamate Decarboxylase 2 gene (GAD2) gene is thought to be part of a polygene system resulting in common obesity. GAD2 coding sequence is present on chromosome 10p locus and encodes for a protein GAD65. This protein catalyzes ...

2. Neurodegenerative disease resulting in mental and intellectual decline (alz.org). 3. Most common cause of dementia and progressively worsens leading to patient’s death. 4. Symptoms a. Memory loss (alz.org). b. Inability to solve daily tasks and problems c.Confusion about place and time d. Depression and social withdrawal - Causes of AD - i. Presence of Amyloid peptide oligomers and neurofibrillary tangles that result in damage and death of neurons.(Gravitz, 2011) ii. Inherent Genetic predisposition. (APOE) allele 4, GSK3 and TREM2 are part of gene clusters associated with AD ( ...

Introduction

Pain is an essential part of the body’s defense system which is perceived as an unpleasant feeling. Pain produces a quick warning to the central nervous system to start motor response as a minimization of harm. Lack of pain perception is dangerous can cause grave problems such as Auto-amputation, corneal scarring or self-mutilation. Researchers in the medical profession have distinguished between pain and what is known as nociception. Nociception occurs when signals get to the central nervous system as a result of the activation of nociceptors (Svokos & Goldstein, 2009). Nociceptors are special sensory receptors which relay information regarding tissue damage. Pain ...

Evolutionary Psychology

Evolutionary psychology (or EP) examines psychological traits like memory, language, and perception, from an evolutionary perspective, which is modern. This theory seeks to identify the human psychological traits that are evolved adaptations. These are the traits, which are the functional products of sexual selection or natural selection. According to the adaptationists, physiological mechanisms are related to psychological processes. They consider the physiological mechanisms of the heart, immune system, and lungs. Some of the evolutionary psychologists apply this thinking to psychology, and argue that the human mind has a similar modular structure to the human body, where different modular adaptations ...

Alzheimer's disease

How would you react when you notice that your grandfather starts to do the weirdest things ever such as forgetting the name of common objects, putting his fragrances inside of the kitchen’s cabinets and even blaming you for taking his sacks. Wouldn’t you feel sad if he doesn’t recognize who you are? Would you think that is normal for a person of his age? If your answer is yes, that means that you like many people misinterpret memory loss in seniors with the Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer's is a type of dementia that causes problems with memory, ...

What are Food Additives?

Food additives are substances that become part of a food product when they are intentionally or unintentionally added to the food while it is being processed or produced (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2011). Examples include using vinegar solutions to pickle food; adding spices or herbs to foods, and adding salt to preserve meat.

What are the purposes for using food additives?

- They improve and maintain the stability and quality of food (South Australian Department of Health, 2006). An example is the addition of sorbitol humectant to mixed dried fruit to maintain the fruit’s softness and moisture. - They improve the appearance and taste of ...

Fill in the following boxes by identifying and describing the location of the 6 neurotransmitters outlined in the textbook. Describe the effect and function of the neurotransmitter and then discuss possible mental health or behavioral or physical issues that can be associated with too much or too little of the neurotransmitter. Save this document and type directly onto the document. The boxes will expand to accommodate what you write. Submit as an attachment to the appropriate drop box.

Identify the Neurotransmitter

Location of Neurotransmitter Effect of Neurotransmitter Function of Neurotransmitter Possible mental health, emotional, behavioral, or physical issues resulting ...

Discuss in detail the mechanism of action of named antiepileptic agents with reference to the relative clinical success of a particular mechanism in the treatment of epilepsy Carbamazepine is a Sodium channel Blocker. It is the major first line antiepileptic drug. It is used for the treatment of partial seizures and generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Carbamazepine blocks sodium channels during rapid, sustained neuronal firing. It also prevents post-tetanic potentiation. Phenytoin is also another first-line drug for the treatment of partial and secondary generalized seizures. Its mechanism of action is to block the movement of ions through the sodium channels during ...

Schizophrenia is a persistent, debilitating and severe psychiatric disorder which, till date, is still poorly understood. The disease presents with psychotic symptoms such as auditory hallucinations and delusions. It is characterized by loss of contact with reality and symptoms being present for more than six months. The disturbances include disturbances in thought, perception, behavior, emotion and communication. (MDGuidelines, 2010). Schizophrenia has also been described as a group of diseases because the various types of schizophrenia have peculiar characteristics. Benedict Morel was the first person to describe a syndrome which was similar to schizophrenia in 1853 when he termed it demence praecox ...

Schizophrenia is a mental illness that is characterized by a severe disabling brain disorder that becomes chronic in some cases. A person with this disorder often changes his behavior, perception and thinking such that they become disoriented from their sense of reality. Much stigma is associated with schizophrenia due to the changes in behavior that occur once the disease strikes. A person with schizophrenia may get delusional whereby they acquire false beliefs of guilt, special powers, persecution and, they may keep on feeling like other people are plotting evil against them (Larry, 2003). These people may also get hallucinations such that ...

Abstract

Depression refers to a mental condition that is characterized by several symptoms that include but are not limited to: lethargy, isolation, prolonged periods of sadness, sudden emotional outburst such as crying for no particular reason, bouts of rage, self destructive tendencies such as cutting or biting, anxiety, paranoia, loss of appetite or unusual increase in appetite characterized by binge eating, insomnia and hostility. Recent estimates indicate that 1 out of every 10 individuals in the United States in termed as clinically depressed. The study also found that those likely to e depressed are: persons without any source of income, those ...

Introduction

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a brain disorder which is commonly associated with the elderly. It affects the cognitive faculties because it causes a progressive decline in: language skills; memory; space and time; and ability to take care of one self and others (AA, 2011). AD is described as the most common cause of memory loss in people aged 65 and above. As one gets older, the risk of developing AD increases. Symptoms of AD may be mild or severe, depending on the disease progression and other factors. AD has the potential to severely limit the normal functioning of the patient. ...