Essays on Chromosomes

Introduction

Exom sequencing is also known as whole exom sequencing (WES). This sequencing technique is used to sequence all the expressed genes in a genome also called as exom. It is one of the most widely used targeted sequencing methods. The exom which is the protein coding region of the human genome consists of less than 2% of the genetic code. This region is responsible for containing more than 85% of known disease-related variants. Thus, whole exom sequencing is a cost-effective alternative to whole genome sequencing (WGS). This technique is efficient in identifying coding variants across a wide range of ...

The chromosomal theory of inheritance is a theory that defines the role of the chromosomes in the execution of the process of Mendelian inheritance (Waddington, 2016). The theory makes a maximum application of the Mendelian laws of inheritance based on various observations. Some of the observations affiliate to the laws includes; the migration of the homologous pairs of chromosomes as discrete structures independent of the other pairs that exist in the same strand. In addition, the theory explains the random process of the pre-gamete occupation of each homologous pair of chromosomes (Waddington, 2016). The parent contributes half of the ...

Abstract

Research shows that the invertebrates can undergo both asexual and sexual reproduction, for example, the case with the female copperhead snake. Various studies took place to explore the instances that commonly occur in snakes and lizards, whereby the organisms reproduce through the process of parthenogenesis. The essay will entail an analysis of the processes of asexual and sexual reproduction, about the genetic diversity. In particular, a strong relationship exists between the processes of cell division with the common genetic diversity that exists among organisms. Additionally, there will be an analysis of the processes of cell division, and most specifically ...

Turner’s syndrome is a genetic disorder which mainly affects female growth and development. It is also termed as gonadal dysgenesis which occurs because of the absence of sex chromosome (X). The absence of the X chromosome causes abnormal development in human females. Instead of having a pair of 46 normal XX chromosomes, females with gonadal dysgenesis develop 45,X chromosomes (Castiglia, 1997). This odd combination of chromosomal pairing results in a conflicted sex of the person, where they are neither distinguished as male or female, due to the absence of the second X chromosome that would establish them ...

Introduction

Sickle Cell Anemia or Sickle Cell Disease is an inherited blood ailment. Those suffering from Sickle Cell Disease have abnormal S/ sickle hemoglobin in the red blood cells. Hemoglobin is the protein in the blood that aids in carrying oxygen throughout the body. The ailment takes its appellation from the shape of the red blood cells of a person affected by Sickle Cell Disease, which have the shape of a sickle. They are stiff and adhesive rather than a disk like normal cells. The misshapen cells tend to get trapped in the small blood vessels hindering the movement of ...

Fetus development begins with a single cell which grows into a body of over one hundred trillion cells. The process of reproduction requires male sperm to fertilize the female egg. Millions of sperm race to achieve this task and each one of them has a unique genetic combination. Twenty-three chromosomes from the female and an equal number from the male combine to form an x shape. Later, two of the x shaped chromosomes join and different genes move between the partners. Later, gastrulation occurs in the lining of the uterus. The different types of genes in a cell lead ...

Hemophilia is an inherited disease that is likely to affect males. It is well-known throughout the history as the most dreadful sickness that prevented normal blood clotting. As a result, diseased people could bleed for hours or even days as they lack a necessary clotting component in their blood. The responsible gene is transmitted in the X chromosome, and this makes males more subjected to the disease. They inherit only one X chromosome, so if it contains mutated gene, it means that a person will surely have the disease. Females have a second X chromosome, and it is usually ...

Turner syndrome is a typical example of a chromosome abnormality caused by the mutation of the chromosomal DNA complex. It is caused by the missing of one sex chromosome in the body. It is presented when the sexual gene orientation of a lady’s chromosome are not complete and lack some genes (Rosenfeld et al. 23). It is caused during the sexual intercourse when a pair of chromosomes fails to separate hence leading to the formation of an embryo with only one X-chromosome. In the embryo formation during copulation, both the parents give out X-chromosomes leading to XX-chromosomes but ...

There are six stages in the life cycle of a mitotic cell which include interphase and cytokinesis. The mitosis stage is divided into four other sub stages. Mr. Interphase performs various functions such as the cellular respiration, photosynthesis and protein synthesis in preparation to undergo the Mitosis stage. Mr. Mitosis has four witnesses, Prophase who helped nuclear membrane disappear into the genetic material. The other witness, Metaphase, makes the alignment of the chromosomes. Anaphase helps in centralizing the chromosomes and changing them from being x-shaped (Rieder, 17). The last witness created the new component of nuclei with their new ...

In the presentation titled “Emotions Stress and Rate of Telomere Shortening: Are Our Cells Listening to Us?” Dr. Elissa Epel from the University of California (UCTV) department of psychiatry shows that stress speeds up the aging process at a genetic level. She chose to use caregivers in this case mothers with children suffering from a chronic condition in her study because they are prone to stress in their work. She focuses on how cell aging specifically on stress, thoughts and lifestyle in addition to addressing gene expression and restoring resiliency. Her major assertion is that when cells divide some ...

Final Test

Explain in general terms the process of DNA replication. The replication of the DNA starts when the double helix unwinds. Each of the two strands serves as the template using which the new DNA double helix strands are formed. The different bases on each of the two strands are then matched in order to form a new set of two strands. Each of the new strands partners with the parent strand to form a double helix (Roth 26).

Prophase – Chromatids are joined at the centromere. Spindle formation occurs. The separation of centrioles occurs in animal cells (Tobin and Jennie ...

Question 1

DNA replication can be defined as the process by which during cell division the DNA duplicates itself to several copies. In this process, the first step involves the unzipping of the double helix found in the DNA structure. This is done by the helicase enzyme, which breaks hydrogen bonds holding the DNA together. When separated the two DNA strands form a replication fork with a Y shape (Craig et al. 2014). This causes the strands to be oriented in different directions, forming the leading and the lagging strands. Once the two orientations are formed, a short RNA piece called ...

1. Explain in general terms the process of DNA replication. DNA replication refers to the process whereby DNA makes its own copy during the process of cell division. During this process, the DNA strands unzip themselves since helicase enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds between the complementary strands. As this occurs, a replication fork is created. Each individual strand (leading and lagging) will be used as templates. A primer attaches itself to the leading strand and the synthesis of DNA begins, whereby DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the synthesized strand. This is a continuous process and occurs in 5’ to ...

Barbara McClintock was a one time student at Cornell University under the auspices of one C. B. Hutchison, who was lecturing in genetics during the fall in 1921. Genetics had not become a widely accepted course during the time, and students used to study it as a preamble to becoming plant breeders. Having been born in Hartford Connecticut in 1902, she earned her first degree in 1923, her Masters in 1925 and a Doctorate in Philosophy in 1927. Her steady rise as a geneticist was inspired by C. B. Hutchison. She studied the genetic characteristics of maize concentrating on ...

A General Outlook on Meiosis and Mitosis Processes

Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis. Think phases, starting and ending products, chromosome numbers, the purpose of each, and the cell types that complete each type of division. Be sure to do a DIRECT compare and contrast, and write in paragraph form - Mitosis involves one cellular division resulting in identical daughter cells while meiosis involves two cellular divisions resulting in different daughter cells. Meiosis produces four haploid cells while mitosis produces two diploid cells- this ensures genetic diversity by sexual reproduction in meiosis and cellular reproduction and production of general growth products in mitosis. The chromosome number also ...

Human Development:

Abnormal Genes and Chromosomes, and Teratogens Human development involves the growth of a zygote to maturity in a gradual process. A series of complex changes occurs within human bodies as development takes place. For instance, cells multiply either through meiosis or mitosis. The genetic makeup of cells also replicates. Normally, chromosomes will be separated to allow for replication of genes within cells. This process is very important during development. However, some abnormalities occur to genes and chromosomes due to teratogens. Teratogens are substances that interfere with the normal fetus or embryo growth and development, whereby they lead to their ...

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Overview

Based on a 2005 survey that was published in the Archives of General Psychiatry, 2.6 percent of the adult population has a bipolar disorder (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). Among these people, 82.9 percent have severe cases of the said condition. Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive disorder, is a serious condition which affects patients’ day to day lives. The National Institutes of Health (n.d.) describes this condition as a “dramatic shifts in mood, energy, and activity levels.” In the popular culture, this disorder have been presented in many American films. For instance, in the year 2012, ...

Trisomy

Chromosomes are marvelous things! They carry in their genes the entire genetic code required to build a human being. Comprised of nucleic acid (DNA) and proteins, twenty-three pairs of chromosomes located in the cell nucleus are needed for the normal development of a human embryo. However, sometimes things go wrong. This paper will discuss some of the consequences of faulty chromosome separation during fertilization, resulting in Trisomy. Trisomy is a chromosomal condition which occurs when three chromosomes, instead of the normal two are produced during cell division. This happens due to the failure of human chromosome pairs to separate ...

Q1. Explain the regulation of the cell cycle

Every cell is regulated by particular checkpoints to ensure that the daughter cells are exact duplications. This is to help guarantee that cell mutations are not passed on to the next generation of cells. In eukaryotic cells, there are three main checkpoints. These are points at which cell replication can be halted until certain conditions are met (Boundless, 2016). The first checkpoint is near the end of the G1 phase. It is here that DNA gets evaluated and checked for damage. If damage has occurred, it either gets corrected or gets prevented from moving on to the next phase ( ...

Abstract

Hemophilia is a genetic condition that is traceable in generations. The disease is usually linked to the excessive bleeding of the patient at a point where the blood vessel is damaged. A lot of research on the disease has been carried out trying to define the origin of the disease and offer extensive support to the solution of the condition. Over time, the disease has attracted extensive attention as the cases of the disease increase. It has not been easy to control the disease since the condition has been overwhelmingly disturbing to the patients as well as the family ...

Abstract

This examination paper acknowledges the spectacular diversity of reproductive adaptations for survival of various categories of land plants. It describes a typical life cycle of a land plant that reproduces via spores. It also identifies the different parts of Plant organs and their functions such as cell organelles, parts of a land plant, and epidermal cells. A microscope is an important tool for examination of biological specimens, including cell’s internal structures called organelle and is important in magnifying the focused area. Plants are classified into four main groups, namely, ferns, mosses, flowering and confers. This paper finds that ...

Turner’s syndrome is a disease that usually affects females. It occurs when one of the X chromosomes (out of the pair of two XX chromosomes) of a female is either missing completely or partially. It can lead to huge numbers of developmental problems and medical complications. Some of the presenting features are short stature, delayed puberty, infertility, defects in the cardiovascular system, inability to grasp or learn new things and problems with social adjustments. The disease can be diagnosed in the gestational phase of the female or during early years of life. It is a rare occurrence that ...

Introduction

Tooth development involves a complex process whereby teeth are formed from embryonic cells, and then eventually mature after erupting as evident in the mouth (Eckhardt, Jágr, Pataridis, & Mikšík, 2014). The development usually originates from mesoderm and ectoderm. At the ectoderm found in the oral cavity, there is the development of enamel and other tissues also come from associated mesenchyme. All teeth don’t develop at the same time, but rather in stages (Eckhardt, Jágr, Pataridis, & Mikšík, 2014). First buds are always observed in the region of anterior mandible, followed by anterior maxillary area then finally ...

Abstract

Transformation remains, and hugely significant tool in extending the borders of life sciences and medicine. It can be referred as fixing intracellular DNA into a bacteria or organism through the vector, thus transforming it. This paper uses plasmid pUC18, self-reproducing circular/spherical strands of genes that may be modified. After the bacteria absorb the vector, some proteins not usually synthesized will occur. In this study, a system has been developed to monitor the transmittance of different DNA (genes) from a genetically transformed strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to E. coli. This mechanism is centered on yeast strains that contain several integrated ...

Article Review on Polytene Chromosomes and Structural Abnormalities

Background The interphase stage during cell division condenses the genetic material i.e. DNA into chromosomes and in salivary glands of Drosophila melanogaster, polytene chromosomes appear characteristically that are a result of repeated replication cycles but no disjunction. They have dark bands alternating with light interbands. The hypothesis tested in the research work performed by Zhimulev et al in 2014 was that the interbands incorporates transcripton initiation sites i.e. promoter binding areas that extend to coding areas in band regions. Using the modENCODE protein profiling data, DamID genome mapping has earlier classified various chromatin states. The current study performed cytological ...

Several thousand years ago, the early modern humans were nomadic foragers, and they forage in groups. However, a major transition occurred around 10,000 BC changing the human behavior, a changeover from the control of the natural environment over humans, to humans in control over the natural environment. Before the start of the agricultural era, the early humans were hunter-gatherers, which means that they depended on wild resources for their nutritional requirements. This style of living led the early humans to have a largely nomadic lifestyle, with the abundance of food source dictated by the natural environment, specifically the ...

Genes are the hereditary units that express proteins in a cell to carry out body metabolism and overall growth and survival. They are the functional units on DNA that is packages inside the nucleus within chromosomes. Humans consist of 23 pairs of chromosomes where 22 are autosomes and one is sex chromosome. These chromosomes have been studied to comprise of around 25,000 protein coding genes. There are continuous phenomenon of changes and aberrations occurring in bases and chromosomes that alter its composition and sequences. These changes or mutations can be harmful if it modifies the gene information as ...

Biology

(Department)

DNA and its importance in our lives

Introduction Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a long linear polymer located in the nucleus of a cell. It is developed from nucleotides and shaped like a double helix. It is related to the transmission of hereditary information from one generation to the second generation. DNA contains the information for the development as well as reproduction of an organism, thereby leading to a normal life. In the year 1953, James Watson, a biologist, and Francis Crick, a physicist, discovered the structure of DNA in a laboratory in England (LEROY, 2003). The structure of DNA helped scientists to know the process ...

According to Palladino (2006), the Human Genome Project (HGP) was a scientific research project carried out internationally for thirteen years. This project was initiated by the U.S government with the support of other contributors such as public and private researchers with the goal of tracing and mapping nucleotides as found in the human Haploid Reference Genome. In other words the project was driven by the need and interest to collect information about the human genome. In this regard, the project was carried out in order to determine the sequence followed by chemical base pairs which are responsible for the ...

The aspect of growth is in all living organisms is brought about by splitting of cells. The mitotic division of cell involves separating of chromosomes into two identical sets and hence the daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell. During meiotic cell division, the cell undergoes various stages characterized by the distinct cellular reorganization (Huskins, 8). The stages undergone by a cell during mitosis start with interface which is characterized by active metabolic activity before mitosis. Prophase is the second phase of mitotic cell division. It is a distinct phase. The chromatin condenses and becomes visible under ...

Lis Rodriguez

Lab 1 ASA College Abstract Patau’s syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that involves trisomy 13. The condition is characterised by either an extra copy of the autosomal chromosome number 13 or a translocation to chromosome 13 from another chromosome. There are severe symptoms observed in the unborn and newborn children having this defect. Polydactyly, cleft lips, physical retardation, mental retardation, heart defects are few of the many symptoms. The disease can be diagnosed during gestation via screening methods followed by several analytical procedures like FISH, karyotyping and microarray on samples of blood and serum from the pregnant ...

The aging process occurs during a person’s lifespan. Nobody can escape this process and it happens to everyone. Aging is associated with maturation, growth, and discovery (Cohen et al., 2015). Many abilities of human beings peak before the age of 30, but there are other abilities that continue to grow and develop throughout the life of a person. Most people who are over the age of 65 are healthy, fully independent, and happy while others start experiencing signs of deterioration. These changes are normal and not harmful. The hair thins and start turning gray and skins thins and ...

Chapter 9

Question 1

Binary mission in prokaryotes Mitosis and Meiosis in eukaryotes Question 2 The development of embryos as well as the growth and development of bodies. Important in asexual reproduction. Question 3 The term cell cycle refers to an ordered set of events leading to cell growth and division into two daughter cells.

Question 4

Interphase is a phase of the cell cycle characterized by the absence of cell division. During this phase, the cell obtain nutrients, the organelles duplicates, protein synthesis takes place, and cells duplicate its genetic material (its chromatids). The genetic material is located in the nuclei of ...