Enlightenment College Essays Samples For Students

Philosophy final

- What are Descartes’ arguments for Cartesian dualism? Do you find them persuasive? If you do not, do you endorse monism, or not? Explain your answer.

In the dualism, Descartes attempts to solve the problem of mind and body. Descartes contrast the mind and the body that the two exist separately. He believes that human beings have two properties, the physical and the mental properties (Stanford encyclopedias of philosophy, all). The physical properties are those that can be attributed to the physical sciences. For examples, size, height and weight, color, shape, and motion in space, among others. On ...

The article provides us with a profound insight of the Adam Smith’s philosophy. Moreover, it depicts Smith in a new light, which was unknown to most of the people, even those interested in economic theory and philosophy. Amartya Sen, in his article “Adam Smith and the contemporary world” asserts that usually people underestimate Smith’s influence on the economic theory and society as a whole. To prove the point, the author provides scores of relevant examples, quoting different passages from various works.

Everyone knows that Adam Smith is considered to be a “father of a modern economy”, however, not all of his ...

When Jacques Louis David created The Oath of the Horatii, in 1784-1785, France was on the verge of the Revolution that would come just a few years later in 1789. David would play a role in it and was its ardent supporter (Tansey and Kleiner, 917). Enlightenment rose as a philosophical ideal that had an impact in art. It suggested that art should have a moral dimension and serve as a lesson to the viewer. At the same ...

Part I: Machiavelli, Rousseau and Nietzsche – A Critical Review

The three philosophical treatises, The Prince (Machiavelli), Lawgiver (Rousseau) and Sovereign Individual (Nietzsche) seem to define the role and position of the topmost leader of the society and how various classes of authority devolves from such a leader. The different philosophers seem to define their view of how these leaders must acquire their power, use it and maintain law and order through the delegation of power and authority and controlling these subordinates through systems of responsibility and accountability. However, Machiavelli’s Prince seems to be somewhat different and distinct from Rosseau’s Lawgiver and Nietzsche’s Sovereign Individual. This ...

Compare Aristotle with Kant, Rawls, and the utilitarians. Which theory offers us the most successful theory of justice?

The essence of justice is a massively studied model. With the help of different social sciences, head scholars continue to reflect on the field and outline of what appears to bear a visionary semblance but whose versions in time of history has often taken different perspectives. An equiparation of the versions of justice in main disciplines of psychology, legal studies, philosophy, economic studies, and sociology, for example, show only very insular convergence lines. An analysis of Aristotle’s interpretation of justice in comparison with Victorian principles and later on in the works of Kant, Rawls and utilitarians and other contemporary thoughts ...

Part one

John Locke who is a British Philosopher and Baron de Motesquieu a French philosopher had similar ideas and thoughts on the formation of the government. However, each of them defines unique path, which lead to the same conclusion.

John Locke is mainly famous as the father of liberalism following his exclusive thoughts on natural rights as well as liberties. According to him, all people are equal and independent. He argues that all individuals have the right to protect their life, possessions, as well as liberty from theft, as well as destruction. Following the incidences of conflict that will always arise in a ...

Chapter 10 Q1

The concept of on the ‘self’ has been one of the major issues in philosophy. Hume held that the ‘self’ is concept that is defined by the collective experiences that one has. In this case, Hume believes one’s awareness of the ‘self’ is tied to the person’s previous experiences through perception (David Hume, 1.4.6.3). Hume notes that humans do not and cannot observe something that is beyond their transient feelings, impressions, and sensations. He further claims that there is no anyone particular impressing that can be called the ‘self’. It is imperative that ...

Immanuel Kant was known for his philosophical views and principles. The definition of human dignity according to Kant is where human beings can act independently from others. The ability of one who can act independently from others can reason and rationally develop their thoughts are, according to Kant is given respect Gentzler (890). Viewing human being as capable and rational beings is a worthy position.

Respect should be at the forefront of human behavior and interaction. When you show respect for another person, you demonstrate that your level of morality is good. When you act in the opposite manner and ...

Kant’s theory of morality centers on the role of moral duty in determination of human decisions. The theory advocated for the treatment of others as an end rather than just a means or tool. It further establishes that a person’s actions initiate from the maxims that lie deep within that person. These maxims are indicators of one’s intentions. The theory describes the use of an individual as a sheer means to an unrelated end. This is whereby one seeks to achieve some objective that the person being used is unaware of its existence. This, as per the theory, is ...

Introduction

Adam Smith is one of the most revered economists that influenced the development of modern economic thought. Adam Smith is famous for coining the term “the invisible hand of the market” which is the perfect metaphor for market movements driven by supply and demand. However what makes Adam Smith’s thinking unique is how it ties is yet contradicts the teachings of great thinkers ahead of him such Aristotle and Saint Thomas Aquinas on their ideas of wealth accumulation and self-motivation. He also thought similarly but contrasted with his contemporaries such as Bernard Mandeville.

Adam Smith was a Scottish ...

Hume and Bergeson were philosophical scientists who are remembered for their contributions on humanity nature. Bergerson’s philosophy advocated for the fact that a person has a free will, which is conceived within their hearts. The basis of their decision is therefore based on what they feel rather than what they see. The imaginative nature of humanity is responsible for all creative that is seen in the world. Hume on the other hand emphasized the fact that desire was the main inspiration aspect that comprise of a human. The driving force behind human action is derived from their desire to see them ...

Introduction Utilitarianism is a principle that the moral worth of an action is determined by its usefulness in maximizing utility and minimizing negative utility. Utility is the pleasure, preference satisfaction and knowledge. The moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome. In this study we are going to compare Mill, John Stuart’s work 'Utilitarianism’ and Kant, Immanuel’s work 'Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals.' The study will also come up with findings based on the comparisons if the end justifies the means. John Mill’s account on Utilitarianism is primarily influenced by Jeremy Bentham ...

Judging this conflict using the philosophical article of Rousseau ‘discourse on origin of inequality’

Rousseau’s philosophical article discourse on the origin of inequality was an attempt to analyze the source of evil and inequality that have been boggling man since his existence in this world. Rousseau in his article wrote that the very evil that faces humanity has originated from selfish behavior of the natural man. To him the man who first installed boundaries on his perceived property became the source of all evil in the world today. In this article Rousseau, wrote that life was initially good when people just had enough to make them survive and enough personal space. The ...

This paper endeavors to explain how different ancient philosophers argued of how they believe in God scientifically and biblically and also how the current 21st generations believe in the existent of God as the creator and the provider of the universe. It also covers my personal views of the argument. Baruch Spinoza (in Hebrew Bento is Baruch, in Latin is Benedictions) is one of the most important philosophers and certainly the most essential of the early modern period. His thoughts combine a dedication to a number of Cartesian metaphysical and epistemological principles with elements from ancient stoicism and medieval Jewish. ...

Throughout the history of Western civilization, people have asked themselves questions about how to lead their lives and achieve happiness. Major philosophers have debated this idea, arguing for different ways of orienting their lives, commenting and criticizing their precursors in the process. Two of the most important of these thinkers were Aristotle and Immanuel Kant, who both drafted different ethical theories, while staying within the boundaries of what is considered standard in the Western philosophical tradition. Specific differences in their contexts lead to major dissimilarities in their theories. However, both theories have aspects which may be considered correct, and ...

Introduction

“Critique of Judgment " is a fundamental work of Kant which develops aesthetic theory. This work is divided into two parts: The Critique of Aesthetic Judgment and The Critique of Teleological Judgment. The book also contains an overview of the entire Critic system of the author. In the “Critique of Judgment” Kant explores the reflective power of judgment which is manifested, in particular, in the judgment of taste or aesthetic judgments. Aesthetic pleasure, according to Kant, is pure (disinterested) pleasure derived from an object. Therefore, the aesthetic should be distinguished from the feeling of pleasure. Kant stated that although ...

The enlightenment would introduce a new system of government and the most important one was sovereignty. The people had every reason to support enlightenment because it brought changes to their political culture. The sovereignty came to the citizens, and it brought equality that did not exist. People did not have businesses that were honorable and did not have the opportunity to own land (Outram, pg.137). During this age, enlightenment thinks endorsed ideas of natural law and progress in all their dealings. The people began to question their governments and leaders. They realized the oppression that the government was imposing upon ...

- For Locke:John Locke, Second Treatise on Government, 1689 In the “second treatise of government”, Locke advocates that governments are formed through mutual agreement. He is of the view that those who are given the mandate to govern must do so without violating the fundamental rights and freedoms of the people. He opines that people acquire the rights to property, life, and liberty upon birth. Locke’s contention is that governments are supposed to protect the foregoing rights for the benefit of the citizens. Accordingly, he observes that the power to make laws is a preserve of the people. ...

The ancestor of classical German philosophy Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) during the early period of the activity dealt with issues of natural sciences much and made the hypothesis of the origin and developments of the solar system. This philosophical system is the compromise between materialism and idealism. Materialistic tendencies in Kant's philosophy affect that he recognizes the existence of objective reality, things out of us. Kant teaches that there are the "transcendental objects" which are not depending on the learning subject. If Kant consistently carried out this look, it would come to materialism. But in contradiction with this materialistic ...

Level 4 (UG Year 1): Coursework Cover Sheet [last update October 2013]

Detailed description of these quality judgments is available online at www.heythrop.ac.uk/assessment Take careful note of the feedback provided. This includes detailed comments intended both to clarify the things you did not understand, and to give clear suggestions for improving your work in future. Feedback on coursework consists of the provisional mark, the above table, and the general comments to be found to the right in the Turnitin Viewer. You can expect such feedback within three weeks whenever you submit work on time. The paper analyzes different aspects of the modernity in Judaism and distinguishes the crucial ...

Explain why the move from amour de soi to amour propre is crucial Rousseau's claim that civilization has done more damage than good for the development of human mankind. The personality that featured himself as a continued importance to us is Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He has the importance because of the situations that are present in today’s world. In spite of him being left us a quarter millennium ago. He is the one who has an insight view of the living. That is living a better life in the competitive, status conscious and hierarchical societies. He has also provided solutions for ...

The ethical theory proposed by the great German philosopher Emmanuel Kant is centered on three dimensions- goodwill, moral worth and duty. Possession of goodwill is the primary requirement of achieving morality. Goodness of one's action is not defined by its goal, reason, means and the expected desirable effects, but is solely determined by its nature. Therefore, certain actions such as theft, cheating, and murder are prohibited even if these actions will hinder man from gaining more happiness since they are naturally immoral. Moral worth is achieved only if the actions are governed by goodwill alone. Actions will not ...

Philosophers customarily described virtue as the morally good habit such as honesty, honour and benevolence among others. Ethicists essentially failed to offer specific definition of the idea of virtue since the term often assumes controversial meanings in different situations. Hume is one of the renowned philosophers who have considerably developed the knowledge of the idea of virtues. Hume assumes a different perspective from the traditional view of the concept of virtue in reference to both the moral significance and the quantity of virtues. In his moral writings, Hume stretches the idea of virtues to include values such as wit, dialog ...

Induction

Induction The problem facing induction has been a great challenge presented by epistemology to various philosophers, among them David Hume. Since the 18th century, he has raised the induction concern to various philosophers with the aim of finding a solution to the dilemma. Karl Popper, Chalmers among others philosophers played an imperative role in identifying a considerable solution to the induction problem. In philosophy, induction is defined as a form of reasoning that is derived from a particular observation of a phenomenon and draws conclusions from the phenomenon. For instance, it is certain that the sun will rise tomorrow in the morning simply because ...

Throughout history, philosophers have often clashed heads in regards to the definition and understanding of the human self. Many have formulated a myriad of theories that attempt to decipher the true meaning and motivations of the human self. Two of the moist prolific philosophers of the exploration of this aspect were Immanuel Kant and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Emerson was an American philosopher born and raised in Massachusetts. On the other hand, Kant lived in an earlier era and was German by birth. It was Kant’s original transcendental deductions that later acted as an influence to the New England Transcendentalism ...

CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE OF PLATO’S ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE

Plato’s Allegory of the Cave is drawn from his tremendous works on the Republic. It is literally a conversation that takes place between Socrates and Gaucon. The conversation is categorized into three parts. The first section is the scene within the cave. According to Kernan, the second part of the discourse deliberates on the three stages of liberation and the third creates a picture of the prisoner returning to the same cave. The scene in the cave is one of gloom and darkness, with prisoner chained and unable to move around, even their heads could only face one single ...

The state of nature is an idea arising from moral and political concepts that try to explain the right and wrong things about human life (Moehler 300). It also elaborates on the perception of human beings and power influence to human life. The states of nature try to explain the human life before civilization with an assumption of what the case would be in case civilization did not exist in the present life (Stănilă 62). However, through the disclosure on inequality, Rousseau presents a different view tracing man way back to the original being. As much as Hobbes argues ...

INTRODUCTION

The issue of if animals have the same sentience and morality of humans is a topic that has been greatly debated throughout history. Many philosophers and scientists have weighed in to try and find the answer to this age-old question. Singer has explicit views on the relative sentience of animals and morality of the ways in which human beings use animals, and those views often come into conflict with the ways that human beings interact with non-human animals in various societies. Singer defines sentience as “the capacity to experience episodes of positively or negatively valenced awarenesses” (Singer). Positive sentience would ...

In a world where most people will only be interested in those things that satisfy their selfish whims, it is unlikely that one would passionate about the general happiness of others in the society. The concept of happiness is an emotional state of wellness that is manifest by the exuberance of pleasant emotions that emanates from a feeling of contentment and joy. However, this definition at best does not capture all the multi-facets of happiness as it may be construed by different persons. Disparities in meaning and construction have been raised by commentators who confine happiness to the hedonistic tradition of ...

Introduction

Cultural beliefs illustrate theories, facts, norms, values, or principles that individuals need to uphold while in the society. The society has a perception on various issues that surround an individual’s life. As such, the individual needs to adopt the perceptions and uphold them while in a given social setting. The following discussion gives an analysis of women, gender, and sex in the rise of western civilization. The discussion makes use of great philosophers and historians who provided different arguments about the topic in order to prove certain points. A comparison and contrast between the works of Jean Jacques Rousseau and ...

Equality is one of the most prevalent themes among the theories developed by intellectuals in society. Even though different theories present various types of discourses regarding the varying degrees of fairness and equality, the political thought during the time of Rousseau and John Locke critically analyzed the concept of equality and inequality in society and emphasized the importance of the individual in thinking. They considered the disposition of humans through the lens of individualism rather than examining the group as a whole. The result was these intellectuals were able to spot a certain extent of secularization in the contemporary train of ...

Ethics can be examined in many different manners, however, Kant’s model of ethics presents a framework to explain how people perceive ethics through reward and punishment. Kant feels that the only way to truly understand ethics is to experience a variety of ethical dilemmas and learn to solve them through emotional stimulus. Kant’s concept of moral obligation is that there is a priori concept of our minds. This essentially removes God as the basis for morality, and argues that we have free-will in regards to our own moral compass. Kant argues that ethics are learned throughout the course of ...

X X X X X 1 Introduction Since the 1930s a new philosophical direction developed almost without recognition of the public. Since then it gained in importance, till it has reached quite recently the predominant role. While this philosophical movement was in the beginning described as Logical Empiricism, or Neopositivism it is nowadays much more accurately described bas Analytical Philosophy. It conducts language and notion analysis on the basis of logic. Gaining popularity in the last years it has altered and even erased some old concepts of classical philosophy. - Vienna Circle ...

Introduction

This study will define some of the terms such as Rationalism Empiricism and principle of utility states. It will further discuss some of the hypotheses by the philosophers such as Nietzsche and Sartre. Rationalism is being defined in philosophy as, the analysis that regards reasons as the primary source and the knowledge analysis. Empiricism is a theory that all the knowledge of matters of facts comes from sensory experience (Locke, 1998).The principle of utility states that, both actions and behavior are correct as long as they uphold happiness and pleasure. On the other hand, actions and behaviors are ...

Introduction

Manderville argues that “private vices” (or self-interest) leads to “publick benefits” (such as social structures like language, law and markets). This is because thinkers like Manderville posit that the best approach for running a society is to create and maintain a Capitalist structure where all members commercialize their effort and make the best of it in terms of profiting from their activities. This paper posits that the benefit of such a commercial society is that it enables people to turn their selfish and unsociable passion into good and positive things. The paper will evaluate this thesis in the light of the ideas ...

David Hume was a successful philosopher who was social and pleasing to be around. His first book, Treatise of Human Nature, did not receive much attention from people. However, it did not deter him from coming up with his second book, The Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. The book is a remake of his first book and focuses on building on empirical philosophy done by Locke and Berkeley. The book also attacks Descartes’ metaphysical rationalism as well as others. The book has an argumentative series that has incremental steps, with each chapter containing its logistics and succeeds the previous chapter. The book ...

Discussion on the Record of Linji

It is for this reason that his question to the head priest, Huangbo, brought him the beating that is the norm in the Buddhist teachings. Huangbo hit him with the rattan, which was a ten-foot bamboo pole, used for this purpose. The teachings that Linji adhered to were part of the Buddhist monastery teaching that involved beating and shouting. He asked the question three times, and was beaten three times. The idea was for him to receive enlightenment, but he clearly did not get that. If he had been mindful and enlightened, there would have been no need for him ...

Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoza on Substance

Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz are the three philosophers that stand out among their contemporaries in the seventeenth century as the greatest rationalists. While constructing their philosophical systems, each of them sought to incorporate philosophical and theological foundations to explain the existence and the essence of substance as regards, mental, physical and moral universe. In discussing their philosophy in relation to substance, the three philosophers are known in their philosophical systems as Leibnizian pluralism, Spinozan monism and Cartesian dualism.

Descartes’ Account on Substance: Cartesian Duality

Descartes’ philosophical system on substance was extremely influential on the subsequent 17 century philosophers who developed their own accounts in reference ...

It is scarcely possible to describe the history of music without reaching the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Mozart is well known and celebrated as being one of the greatest composers and musicians in recorded history, and for good reason. Very few individuals in history have had such a profound and pronounced effect on their field as Mozart has, and a testament to this can be read from the symbolism and thematic content of his magnum opus, The Magic Flute. It is an ostensibly light-hearted fairy-tale opera that served as a convenient introduction to the genre and continues to do so more ...

Discussion on the Record of Linji

The search for truth is within each man. As a young monk, Linji did not quite understand the truth of what one should be as a person in the light of Buddhist teaching. He was a simple down to earth person, and spent his days minding his own business. His question to the head priest, Huangbo, brought about severe retribution. Huangbo hit him with a ten-foot bamboo pole. The use of the rattan that was popular in the Buddhist monasteries and especially in the teachings to which Linji was exposed. This happened three times, after he asked the question: what the cardinal principle ...

Enlightenment connotes to the transitional process that involve positive significant development. The cited enlightenment has been in existence from the 17th century to the contemporary times. However, the cited enlightenment for instance industrial revolution has elicited myriad debate on its effectiveness coupled with the success. Categorically, myriad challenges have been identified in the enlightenment process. The mentioned challenges such as political, economic and social have instigated untold suffering to the myriad populace. The paper endeavors to explicitly extrapolate on industrial revolution as the failure of enlightenment. Agreeably, enlightenment has significantly changed the status of specific nations. For instance, ...

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David Hume one of central figures of Scottish Enlightenment said “The Christian religion not only was at first attended with miracles, but even at this day cannot be believed by any reasonable person without one.” This is an ample evidence of his rational and logical thinking. He always argued in favour of proof in order to establish the truth – making him one of the strongest rationalists and also establishing himself ...

Universal Ethics is a set of values that apply to all humans, whether religious or secular, independent from any particular faith. The compilation of Universal Ethics is not a base for a new religion. In precise, it does not say anything about liturgical or philosophical notions of any categories. That means that it does not elucidate the existence of the Universe with inclusion of a man’s existence. It does not suggest any precise ritual in addition it does not deal with the concept of God. It does not contain any stories, myths, or absolute doctrines. Most significantly, Universal Ethics does not prescribe ...

Social Contracts as proposed by Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau

Numerous psychologists have contributed immensely to the field of psychology and human behavior and a few famous such psychologists are Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Rousseau, among other who have contributed largely to the field of psychology. All the above mentioned psychologists are exemplary thinkers as each one of them has grappled to an exceptional extent in discussing the problem of origin. Considering Locke, this encompasses the origin of the psychic body of the individual; and while with Hobbes, it encompasses the origin of the social organization of the humankind. The theory of Social Contracts as proposed by Thomas Hobbes ...

At the center of feminist theory is the notion of objectification. Generally defined objectification is seeing and treating an individual as an object or a tool for use. Objectification has mostly been defined in relation to women than to men. Sexual objectification occurs in the context of sexuality. In the pornography debate, it’s been argued by anti-pornography feminists that, by men consuming pornography, women as a whole are reduced to the level of mere objects for use by men. Traditionally the view has been that only women can be sexually objectified, however, feminist authors Naomi wolf and Christina Hoff observe ...

Invisible hand concept

A great economist, philosopher, scholar and researcher Adam Smith passed this world a few centuries ago and left us quite controversial matters to be discussed and clarified. Famous and prominent scholars tend to leave us certain mysteries for this world to wonder.

In his book “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”, Adam Smith asserts:

“Every individual is continually exerting himself to find out the most advantageous employment for whatever capital he can command. It is his own advantage, indeed, and not that of the society, which he has in view. But the study of his own advantage naturally, or rather necessarily, leads him to prefer that employment which is most advantageous to ...

J.S. Mill versus Immanuel Kant dilemma There has been little notable progress so far in determining the controversy of judging the criterion of wrong and right. Among the facts presented about the present state of human knowledge, the controversy’s state is most indicative significant of the outdated state in which making theories of the relevant subject still lingers. So far, it proves how much little progress exists. Since the dawn of philosophy, the question of the “summum bonum", (the greatest good) concerning morality has caused its division into schools and sects warning against each other, and is ...

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Answers for multiple choice questions 1. B (Inductive, Strong) 2. E (Deductive, Invalid) 3. A (Deductive, Valid) 4. E (Inductive, Weak) 5. D (Inductive, Strong) 6. C (Deductive, Invalid) 7. B (Inductive, Weak) 8. A (Inductive, Strong) 9. C (Deductive, Valid) 10. E (Inductive, Weak) 1. The gestures of Aristotle and Plato are rather rhetorical in the sense that they look like pointing to the heavens and the earth. Aristotle claims that all change on Earth was owing to the ...

This is my position regarding the chapter 9 Are there absolute moral rules? in the book ‘The Elements of Moral Philosophy’. It has an elaborate discussion on absolute moral values analyzing the situations from World War II period. Harry Truman justified his decision to drop atom bombs in Japan, telling that he thought that would end the war. Elizabeth Anscombe, one of the greatest woman philosophers and non-consequentialist, mentioned that Truman should be regarded as a murderer, arguing the point some things may not be done no matter what. Immanuel Kant, another non-consequentialist, brings forth hypothetical and categorical imperatives, opining ...

Enlightenment, love, experience, and even chaos and the brutality of war- the word ‘war’ here used to include a wide array of conflicts and disagreements that result in various kinds of brutality- are central themes in many philosophical discussions. Many of these discussions discern these aspects, but also find the interrelationship between them, either implicitly or explicitly. The readings in class: Shirane’s Traditional Japanese Literature, De Barry’s discussions in the Sources of East Asian Tradition, among others do the same, offering their various insights into these elements and more (often implicitly). But most importantly, these sources show that, ...

Since the beginning of time, people constantly look for ways of justifying their religions. The most basic justification would be the presence of God. For this reason, many religions look for ways of proving that God Exists. Cosmological arguments are those that seek to show either the presence or the absence of God in the universe (Hume, 59). In the cosmological argument, one looks at one factor about the world. Such factors include the fact that the earth has materials that cause others to exist. The cosmological argument has two parts. The first part seeks to proof the existence ...

Philosophy

In Rousseau’s political thoughts, general will is at the heart of the social contract. General will is the most fundamental principle in Rousseau’s social contract. Social contract gets its legitimacy through only the application of general will. But what this “general will” actually is? To Rousseau general will is not simply the sum total of all individual wills, rather it is the collective will of the people of a community. The general will is something additional to the simply the will of all the individuals. In Rousseau’s view general will is the only source of law and ...

According to a recent scholarly opinion, Buddha sometimes lived between fifth and forth century BCE. But there are several controversial views on the exact birth of Buddha. The author gives a thorough review of the ancient Indian social system. Sanskrit was the prominent language, and the society was divided into different segments, what we can call a social hierarchy. On the apex of the hierarchy was priest or Brahmans. ‘The priests, or brahmanas (anglicized as “Brahmins”) occupied an elite position in this early, village-based society’ (Berkwitz 14) While telling the reason of the highest position of Brahmin Berkwitz (p.14) states, ‘they were ...

The enlightenment period or the age of enlightenment as it is commonly known is a period in the 18th century where the smartest minds of the time tried to explain formerly unexplainable phenomena using scientific methodology and reasoning as opposed to tradition and faith which were more puritan ideals (Nina, 365). Everything at the time was subject to critical reasoning. Some of the fields that faced the reasonable critique were politics, religion and most importantly literature. Before the enlightenment period the dominant force on knowledge was religion, especially Christianity. The 18hth century saw major transformations with many believing that the ...

One of the dark secrets of Newton is his deep curiosity and obsession to religion and his devotion to occult. Another revelation shows that Newton has tried to enter pseudoscience which means he settled on beliefs and practices that are mistakenly known as based on scientific method given that before everything, he believes that everything in this world can be subscribed to scientific understanding. According to Walter Lewin, one of the speakers in the video, Isaac Newton is allergic to criticisms even before that is why he decided on keeping his inventions and even the other earthly manners that ...

The subject of ethics is definitely wide, with various interests and resulting to impetuses that are inclined to spread their occurrences. Situations that often lead to arising of immoral actions are numerous, and it is in the light of this that considerations have to be made depending on the exact situation. Nonetheless, the principles of ethics in practice often seem related to each other in one way or the other as portrayed by theorists such as Aristotle, Kant and Bentham. Thus; this essay presents an occurrence I underwent that present an ethical dilemma, with the succeeding viewpoints. After ...

The enlightenment thinkers espoused the use of logic and reason over tradition, religion, culture and logic. The aim of enlightenment thinkers was to give a logical foundation to a philosophy. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a prominent intellectual figure during the age of enlightenment. He is mostly recognized as a political theorist and philosopher. Rousseau’s first philosophical work won him a prize from the Academy of Dijon. This work was a critique on the fundamental propositions of the enlightenment. He questioned the nature of human inequality, whether it was “natural”. Rousseau argued that the advancement of science and art led to a digression of human morality, instead ...

Research Paper

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Economic Thought

1. Ibn Khaldun in his work The Muqaddimah has as a central organizing principle for society. His concept of Asabiyyah, or social cohesion, refers to the social bonds that form as a result of divisions of labor. Explain how this principle is derived from this “division of labor.” Prolegomena is a book written by North African Muslim historian, Ibn Khaldun in 1377 which records an early view of ...

Philosophy and Social Issues

German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, is primarily known for is philosophical work on the study of ethics. What sets him apart from other philosophers on this subject is that rather than judge individuals themselves, he instead looks at the subjects of “right” and “wrong” as separate entities in order to suggest the best way for people to behave. Kant grew tired of people acting immorally based on their idea that the ends would justify the means. He believed in deontology, which suggests that moral judgment resides in the act itself and the ends do not justify the means. There is ...

Kant’s moral absolutism is an ethical view that actions are either right or wrong based on categorical imperative. In this case, the moral or lack of it is on the act itself other than the consequences. Kant views are opposed to consequentialism and teleological approaches in ethics. Kant uses the ability of humans to act rationally to develop his arguments. A rational human being is able to control one’s desires or impulses and hence, is able to act out of the principle and moral duties. The question arises whether there is such absolutism. Are there actions that ...