Essays on Currency

I believe that economic globalization brings both benefits and shortcomings to international portfolio investments, but is overall beneficial. On the one hand, economic globalization leads to expanded markets for companies who are now able to address the need of more customers than before. Because of this, companies can use economies of scale to their own benefits and generate better returns on capital. The globalization allows for a more efficient allocation of resources, for instance by manufacturing products in the area where the prices are the most competitive (e.g. European textile brands manufacturing clothes in Bangladesh). These are all benefits

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The use of bitcoins

Bitcoin is a form of currency that was created in 2009, and which is not issued by any central bank. The transactions that are made using this currency do not have middle men which imply that there is no use of banks. Bitcoin transactions do not have transaction fees, and a user does not need to provide real names. There is no physical bitcoin, but rather computers are used to create them. All those computers that create them form a network that serves to confirm the transactions that are made with bitcoins, without the help of MasterCard, Visa, or

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The foreign currency is usually held country's central banks and other financial institutions. This currency is used to pay the international debt and trade obligation or to influence the domestic exchange rate. In the international trade of the commodities such as the gold and oil are priced and measured in using the reserved currency. This contributes to the holding of the currency by other countries for the exchange of the products.
The holding of such currency reserves helps in the exchange rates risks reduction. The purchase of the product and good is done in the manner that has standardization

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The four financial hedging techniques are future, forward, money market and currency option hedge. Any business firm is supposed to compare it is the cash flow in determining which the technique to apply to hedge. The futures hedge is involved in the use of the currency futures. To hedge the future payables, the business or the associated firm is supposed to purchase a future currency contract in regard to the currency of the choice as it needs (Stephens, 2003).
A forward hedge is the similar with the future hedge but the only difference is that the only forward contract

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Currency Hedging

Introduction
Currency risk is an intrinsic aspect in the foreign market. The enterprises that operate in this environment have a variety of derivative instruments that can be used in connection with these risks. Managing these risks requires enterprise wide coordination otherwise; these international exposures will affect the value of the currency. Therefore, global equity portfolio managers have resulted in a variety of methods to currency hedging to manage the uncertainties in the foreign market. This is so because currency hedging reduces the financial risk, which occurs in the foreign market. Therefore, the paper will evaluate the currency hedging and

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Analysis: IBM vs. Infosys Inc

As per the definition, Large Cap stocks refer to the stocks of the company, whose market capitalization exceeds $10 Billion. The term ‘’ Large Cap’’ is an abbreviation for the term large capitalization of a company which is calculated by multiplying number of shares outstanding to market price per share. For growth stocks, such stocks are expected to provide returns higher than the above market rate of return. Generally, market analyst considers the technology or the blue chip stocks to be growth stocks.
For the given task, I have selected two blue chip stocks i.e., IBM from USA and Infosys

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Every nation has independence to choose, which exchange rate system it will follow. The choice for selecting a suitable exchange rate ranges from a flexible exchange rate or fixed exchange rate system. Under floating exchange rate system, the value of the currency is decided by market forces, while, under fixed exchange rate systems, the currency of the country is pegged against some standard of value. The choice of exchange rate is a tough task and depends significantly on the freedom of capital to flow in and out of the country. However, one negative effect of allowing the free capital

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Currency Wars

Currency Wars is also referred to as competitive devaluation. It is a scenario where countries compete against each other to gain a low exchange rate for their own domestic currency. As the country’s domestic currency falls, so does the price of exports from that country. The imports become expensive and the domestic industry flourishes due to increase in demand from the domestic and foreign markets. The leaders of G-20 nations met in Moscow and took some important decisions regarding currency wars. In a statement issued at the conclusion of the conference, the finance ministers of G20 promised, by

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International Trade and Foreign Exchange Rates

International Trade and Foreign Exchange Rates
Trade surplus or deficit is usually used to analyze international trade. Speaking about U.S. economy, one need to use surplus of imports only, as the balance of trade this year in January was minus 38702 million dollars, meaning that the US imports goods more than exports (“United States balance of trade”, 2014).

Firstly, this is industrial machinery and equipment, at $731 billion. Almost a half in the category is crude oil ($313 billion). Also, fuel oil ($46 billion), petroleum products ($50 billion) and natural gas ($9 billion) is essential in it. Large amounts

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The government of China modified its currency policy on July, 2005 and made an announcement that the government would not interfere with the currency, it is a guarantee that exchange rates would become adjustable based on demand and supply in the market. In 2008, China halted its currency appreciation policy because of decline in global demand for Chinese products. This led to millions of migrant workers lost their jobs and resulted to government intervention preventing any further appreciation against the dollar. In 2004, China’s current account increased its reserves from 469 billion to $421 this is historic because

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International Finance

Answer 1)
Vehicle Currency refers to a currency which is used to make international transactions between two countries when either of the countries do not have the vehicle currency as their national currency. For Instance, since most of the trade transactions are help in US Dollars, in such case US Dollar can be referred to Vehicle Currency.

Using a vehicle currency, offers following benefits:

Reduced Transaction Cost: A country whose national currency is used as the vehicle currency offers advantages to its resident as they can conduct international trade and commerce with more convenience and lower transaction cost.
Improved Currency Business: With the use of national

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Arguments for and against the Bitcoin

Bitcoin is a digital system of currency that used for paying for goods and services online. The currency is available both in electronic form and minted coins. The electronic or online form is currently widely available especially in China. However, the founders are working hard to develop the currency note printouts. Since its invention five years ago, the currency has had both positive and negative arguments about it. Supporters of the currency purport that it will greatly reduce the online cost of doing. This is because it is widely available online so long as there is an internet connection.

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Cambridge Dictionary defines money as the coins and bills of a certain value used for the financial exchange. Money serves as a medium of economic exchange, a measure of value, and as a mechanism of saving and storing wealth.
Money is accepted in return for goods and services, and it acts as a measure of value in the price system. It is the key mechanism of making payments and serves as a means of storing the purchasing power.
Money is not only coins and bills, but any commodity that is used as an instrument for exchange. Centuries ago people

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In today’s world, changing exchange rate has a great impact on the working and reliability of companies. The fluctuating exchange rate affects MNCs, large corporations along with smaller industries. Not only do business owners need to be aware of the impact of exchange rate risk, but also to investors since it can influence their investments. Transaction exposure is due to the international transactions made by a company. Economic exposure is uncalled for currency fluctuations that occur. If the currency increases then the competition between the companies

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Cash Conversion Cycle – Home Depot Inc. versus Lowe’s Companies Inc.
In the section, the cash conversion cycle of two companies is compared which reflects the financial performance of these publicly traded businesses to collect cash, generate sales and pay their creditors. In the below mentioned table, the cash conversion cycle is computed by the addition of Days Sales Outstanding (DSO) ratio to Days in Inventory (DI) and exclusion of the Payable Period (PP) ratio from that sum.
It is also clear that liquidity management and cash generation, “Lowe's Companies” tends to outperform “Home Depot” because it is paying

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ITERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEMS

Abstract
The purpose of this paper was to study three main monetary systems: the Gold Standard, the Bretton Woods, and post-Bretton Woods. International monetary system is a set of methods, tools and intergovernmental bodies, with the help of which the mutual payment and settlement turnover function within the global economy.
There existed and succeeded each other three international monetary system. The first one, the Gold standard, was based on gold which was the main form of money. National currencies were pegged to gold, and the gold content of the currencies was correlated with each other at a fixed exchange

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Introduction

Foreign exchange market is an international, decentralized market for trading of currencies of different countries (DeRosa, 2011). This market is made up of the financial institutions, especially banks that are ready to exchange one currency for another. DeRosa (2011), explain that exchanging money means trading one currency for another and the value at which exchange takes place is called exchange rate, which is the price of that currency. Most of the transactions take place in United States, United Kingdom, and Japan with most of the rest market located in Germany, Australia, Singapore, and France. Foreign market is fully liberalized

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Introduction

This paper entails a detailed discussion and summary of what I experienced and learnt through my participation in the Financial Markets course, which formed part of my graduate studies. Having recently joined the financial services sector as a junior analyst at a large investment bank, my participation in this course has enabled me to gain practical and knowledgeable financial insights that I have applied both at work, and in other real life situations. Prior to joining the financial services sector, I previously worked as a litigation attorney in a mid-sized law firm located within my metropolis. My participation in

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Discussion on Exchange rate of Pakistan for the period 1990 to 2010

This paper will elaborate on the exchange rate changes and currency fluctuations of Pakistan, which is the sixth largest country in terms of population and also the 7th nuclear power. The researcher will present an economic analysis on exchange rate disparity of Pakistani Rupee (PKR) with US Dollar during the era of 1990 – 2010. For this purpose, the information and statistics available on FDI, import and export figures, external debt, foreign reserves of US Dollar, inflow of remittances and impact of economic sanctions due to nuclear explosions will be analyzed in detail to study the strengths and weaknesses of

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The exchange rates in the market are bilateral, that is, comparing the values of a currency against the other. However there is a need to compare a currency with that of several counties .Effective Exchange Rate refers to the index describing the strength of a county’s currency in reference to the basket with other currencies. Let’s assume a country has M trading partners denoted by Trade i and Ei representing the trade and the exchange rates with country i. The effective exchange rate will be calculated as:
E effective =E1Trade1Trade+. + EM TradeMTrade

The Effective exchange Rate is divided into two namely: The Nominal Effective Exchange Rate and The Real Effective Exchange Rate.

Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER)

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INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

- Trade history of Saudi Arabia:
The coastal people of Saudi Arabia have been well positioned from the trade due to the benefit of Arabian Peninsula. KSA is an old route of the caravan trade that connects the Mediterranean world with south Asia, Arabia, and East Asia (Encyclopedia Britannica). The trade in Saudi Arabia was generated by pilgrims that came to Medina and Makah. In 1938, with the discovery of oil country started trading with other and after World War 2 through the exports of oil reserves country was able to have higher funds (Saudi Embassy, 1-7).
Average exports

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The Asian financial crisis of 1997-98 began with currency speculators dumping the overvalued Thai baht that eventually led to its devaluation. Sensing that other Asian economies were also weak, speculators targeted them as well which led to the crisis spreading to Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philipines and South Korea.
What do you think are the main causes of this crisis? Are there factors that are critical in any explanation and which may indicate that a crisis is imminent?

Answer:

The reason of the fall of the Thai Baht and other currencies can easily by using the simple rules of economics. Due

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Virtual Currency

Introduction 3

Types Of Virtual Currency 4
Evolution of Virtual Currency 6
Crypto-Currency 7
BitCoin 7
Virtual Currency Ecosystem 11
Virtual Currency Exchange 11
Administrator 11
User 11
Miner 12
Virtual currency wallet 12
Benefits of Virtual Currency 13
Global cash transfer 13
Cost Saving 14
Universal Currency 14
Conclusions 14

Bibliography 16

Introduction
Virtual and digital currency are often confused and used interchangeably, when in reality virtual currency is a specialized kind of digital currency but not all forms of digital currency are virtual. Digital currencies are represented and stored in digital format, however

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Iran Economics Analysis

Introduction and Data Presentation
Iran's economy is one of the richest countries in Asia - the 18th in the world by volume of national production (according to the CIA, 2010) and the largest among the countries of Western Asia, the Middle East and OPEC. Iran in terms of GDP is the largest economy in the Islamic world after Turkey. The volume of GDP in 2011, $ 928.9 billion, GDP growth - 2.5%.
At competitive occupies 23 place on innovation - 27, the index of the knowledge economy - 34th place among the other nations of the world. Iran possesses the

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Business

The Bretton Woods system is regarded as the most remarkable achievement in the financial management and exchange rate scenario, as it was after the Bretton woods agreement the US- dollar was set as a standard global currency, eventually putting an end to the gold standard system. Two global organizations were also established after the Bretton Woods agreement. They are the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The primary objective behind establishing these two organizations was to monitor the newly established system. Since the United States was the single nation globally

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What is a Bitcoin? Well before one can truly understand what a Bitcoin is, I feel as if they must understand the general concept of cryptocurrency. In brief, cryptocurrency is simply a digital or virtual currency that is protected by cryptography as means of security. This form of currency is notorious for its anonymous nature. There are several dozen kinds of cryptocurrency already in place and being formed too. The most popular version of being called a Bitcoin. Imagine Bitcoin is to cryptocurrency, just as US dollar bills are to paper money, but with a few small

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The European Union covers almost half of Europe. The region comprises of 28 member states who have the common interest of doing business. The region covers between Belarus, Ukraine, Russia, southeastern Europe, and the North Atlantic Ocean. The whole region covers about 3,976,372 square kilometers, which is less than half of the whole area covered by the United States of America. The coastline of the area is about 65,413.8 kilometers. The area experiences cold temperature to the north side, mild winters and hot, dry summers in the south of the region. The terrain of the area

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Questions:

- If your database contained data about 1,000 vendors (using the same fields contained in this exercise), what other types of reports (besides contact information) could you create with the data?

- Report showing the preferred vendors.
- Report showing vendors from a particular state, city, or locality.
- Report showing preferred vendors from a particular state, city, or locality.
- Report showing international vendors or vendors who use currencies different from the local currency – sorted on currency.
- How would these reports assist you in preparing your solution to your case study?
These reports show that the

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Translation risk arises due to variance in exchange rate used in expressing the portfolio components in the books of multinational firms. The higher the portfolio components in the books of the company, the higher the translation risk. Bearing in mind, this kind of risk, several ways have been suggested, and most of them adopted to cushion the multinational against this type of risk. This article will briefly discuss the available ways of cushioning a company against this risk.
This type of risks is mostly felt by companies that operated cross border businesses and particularly where a single currency is

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Impact of Currency Devaluation on Argentina’s Economy

In January 2014, Argentina devalued its currency, peso, by 15 per cent against the United States dollar; this represented the sharpest decline since the 2001 devaluation when Argentina had failed to pay its foreign debt. Previously, the Argentine economy experienced current account surpluses due to high commodity prices and competitive exchange rates. Nonetheless, poorly formulated and implemented policies led to a decline in the current account balance and finally into a deficit. The devaluation of the currency will significantly lower the price of Argentine products in the international market increasing their competitiveness. In the converse, imports will be more

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Problem 1

In a fixed exchange rate regime (also known as pegged exchange rate), official exchange rate is tied to the exchange rate of another country. In some cases, it can be tied to the prices of gold. Free floating exchange rate changes freely and is determined by the demand and supply of that particular currency relative to other currencies. In the managed floating system, central bank at some frequency often intervenes not to allow the exchange rate getting away to some unexpected level.
The fixed exchange rate system keeps currency value within a narrow range, whereas currency value can be

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Cadbury

Introduction
The aim of this report is to present financial analysis of Cadbury Company. In order to deliver the same, this report will distinctly describe and then differentiate between the three main exposures of foreign exchange that many companies experience. Further the report will provide definitions and explanations of the determinants of Cadbury Company working under the exposure of international framework. Solutions will be offered in this report for discussing the importance of instruments in finances and the techniques of internal associations through which Cadbury Company can manage its international exposure operation. In addition, it will be important to

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In a monetary union, governments of member countries do not have their control on the currency in which they issue debt; the case is different for a non-member country, because, they are capable of issuing debt in their own currency on which the government has full control. In the article, Paul De Grauwe, has evaluated the economic position of a member (Spain) and non-member (UK) of euro-zone. The state of banking sector of UK is not much healthier than Spain, UK government has their control over their own currency on which they issue debt, whereas Spain is a member

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Exchange Rates Systems

The financial risk associate with the currency is the risk which is out of the control of the management of any business. The international trade of any country is done normally in the foreign currency. Therefore, in these circumstances, it is the responsibility of the government and the central bank to minimize the risk associated with the main pool of foreign currencies to encourage the international trade of their country. (Pettinger)
As compared to freely floating exchange rate and dirty float exchange rate, the fixed exchange rate of the currencies has the minimum rate of risk and fluctuation for

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Although the origins of the theory date back to the 16th century, Gustav Cassel proposed the modern form of the theory of purchasing power parity in 1918. It is an economic theory used initially just for determination of exchange rates but recently as a measure of comparison among living standards of different nations as well. The concept of ‘Purchasing Power Parity’ is based on the law of one price. It means that the prices in two different countries should be identical when the currencies are converted into a common currency. In other words, the phrase purchasing power parity means

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Introduction

Bretton woods System is a management monetary rules which were established for both commercial and financial relations among the world’s industrial states. Ideally, this rules focused on rebuilding the international economic system during the Second World War. 730 delegates from 44 associated nations gathered at the Mount Washington Hotel located in Bretton Woods in the United States. During the Bretton Worlds Conference, which occurred between 1st and 22nd July 1944, an agreement was signed (Bordo & Eichengreen 64).
In order to come up with this rules, the delegates came up with the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank

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In 1991, authors Roth, Prasnikar and Okuno-Fujiwara performed an experiment that seeks to analyze the role of different forces as currency, culture, and language in affecting market behavior in four different countries. Their goal was to establish which of the three variables would have the most significant impact in a bargaining situation. However, for this experiment the proponents presented the use of two experimental conditions or situation. The first situation involves a simple one-period bargaining situation and simple one-period market in three different countries.
The proponents predicted that among the three variables, culture would have the greatest impact in

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Answer 1

One of the main reasons that some US firms may become multinationals is that they may enjoy increased global presence and hence high power. The other reason is that they may increase their profits by entering into markets that are not as competitive as the US market. Thirdly these firms may enjoy a less regulated operational environment in other countries. As for why the firms may become multinational, any of the reasons will fit. There is no reason that is irrelevant since all of them are important for US firms.Answer 2
Such a domestic firm is protected from foreign

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1
(a)
Gross domestic product of a commodity is its value in relation to the market price of that particular country, and it also indicated the living standards of that particular nation. The value of the gross domestic product can, however, is calculated using different formulae and they are; using the income, expenditure and production methods.
GDP=C+G+I+NX. C is the consumed product or the amount spent by the consumer; G is the total value spent by the government, I, the total of all the business expenditures of the county and NX is the net profits of

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Abstract

This paper is on the topic of currency hedging as part of Global Financing and Exchange Rate Mechanisms. The first section of this paper will discuss the use of Currency Hedging in global financial operations. The following section of this paper will describe the importance of currency hedging in management of risks. The final section of this paper will conclude with the basic understandings of currency hedging and its understandings.

Introduction

Currency hedging is done by entering in a financial contract for protecting expected, unexpected or anticipated change in the currency rates. Businesses and financial investors use Currency Hedging for

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