Essays on Expectancy Theory

The objective of this paper is to address to questions raised at the end of the captioned case study.

Question 1: Which motivation theory(s) do you think would help communicate the importance of vacation time to your employees? I would use Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, positive reinforcement and expectancy theory to help communicate the importance of vacation time to my employees. Maslow’s hierarchy of need will help emphasise the need of being social and role of family in building intimacy and belongingness. The communication will work towards need creation in the employees mind to crave for family timing and time to retrospect. I will use the expectancy theory to make them believe that vacations benefit ...

Two distinct set of financial reports are used in managing a company, one made by Financial Accountants and the other by Managerial Accountants. These reports are aimed at the company’s external stakeholders such as investors and creditors and are prepared for each quarter and at the end of the financial year and. The format and content of these reports are laid down in laws such as the SOX (Sarbanes- Oxley) Act and in accounting regulations such as the GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles) and the IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards). Financial reports become comparable across companies. Managerial accounting ...

Part A

Abraham Maslow hierarchy of needs and Herzberg Two-Factor theory are some of the motivation theories that underlie the switch to the new scheduling system at Montego Bay. Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of needs postulates that human beings have a set of five needs arranged in a definite order with three low-level level needs (physiological needs, safety needs, and social needs) and two high-level needs (esteem needs and self actualization needs) (Griffin, 2016). The scheduling system generates work schedules based on the daily performance metrics. Consequently, employees like Sylvia find themselves with lesser hours with which they are not able to ...

[Subject/Course] [Submission Date]

Executive Summary When Robert J. Dewar’s “The Savage Factory: An Eyewitness Account of the Auto Industry’s Self Destruction” is read and evaluated, it becomes crystal clear that the Sharonville transmission plant at the Ford Company could not realize the negative consequences of their obsolete management style. In this case study, the main purpose is to examine the methods implemented at the firm and suggest a substitute impactful approach to resolve the various issues that had surfaced up at the Ford facility. In the past, Sharonville transmission plant’s torque converter line was failing to ...

2016-04-09

References 12 Introduction As we know, the labor resources are the main resource of enterprises. The results of the company and its competitiveness depend largely on the quality and effectiveness of the above mentioned resources. The difference between the labor force and other types of resources lies in the fact that each employee may waive the conditions offered to him and can require changes in working conditions, retraining or even voluntary redundancy. The concept of “labor resources of the enterprise” characterizes its potential workforce. Employees can be organized in labor unions and to act as a separate subject of ...

The film describes a group of employees of a fictitious company «Initech». Shortly after the start of the film the company hires two consultants named Bob (namesake) in order to help the company reduce its costs. These two Bobs basically interview employees to determine who need to be fired.

CORE ISSUE

Peter is in stress. His work in office reduces his effectiveness because of his stress. Peter knows that he risks being dismissed in the list compiled by Bobs. An absurd accident comes at a time when his girlfriend takes him to the medical hypnosis therapy. The physician-hypnotherapist dies of a ...

BUSINESS PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION In the current working environment, employees are very conscious about their careers than any other thing in their lives. They look at their work in terms of personal development and growth. As a result, organizations that fail to help their employees reach their personal needs in terms of career development risk losing very important members of staff to competitor companies which is a risky endeavor to businesses focused on growth. Retaining employees has become one of the biggest problems that organizations face in the current world. Psychology in the workplaces is vital in ensuring that there is maximum ...

Executive Summary

Apple Inc. is a multinational information technology company that designs a number of IT products such as Mac Laptop, iPod, iPad and iPhones among others. The company employs a vertical integrated strategy hence able to control its operations. The company over the years has recorded major profits and this can majorly be attributed to its motivated employees, leadership structure, negotiation and change management strategy. The company’s continued success mainly stems from its motivated employees. By considering the hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two way theory and expectation theory, Apple’s employees are wholesomely motivated. With regards to leadership, ...

Motivation is typically defined as an individual’s willingness to act or behave in a particular way. Motivation is a result of an individual’s cognition. People interpret a situation and then behave according to their understanding of that particular situation. The end goals or reaction of others would also determine the extent to which a person may be motivated to behave in a specific manner. Motivation may best be understood in terms of the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that guide an individual’s behavior.

Expectancy Theory defined the correlation of motivation and behavior with the exploitation of psychological implications. Victor Vroom has extended the definition of expectancy theory with the elaboration of motivation as the core factor that determines the choice of demeanor of an individual. The theory provides an estimated overview of the influence of motivation over behavioral utterance that constructs the outcome of certain activity. The factor of Motivation cultivates the impression which is referred in Victor Vroom Theory as the foundation of an individual’s expectancy. The referred theory projects motivation as an instrument that ...

Kleck and Barnes Article Analysis Project

Basic issue Arguably, many people over the years have stated that more police officers should be employed as it negatively encourages potential criminals from committing crimes. An example is during President Clinton’s tenure when congress passed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. The Act allowed the federal government to hire 100,000 police officers nationally. This article examines if employing more officers affects the rate of criminal activity in the area. Specialists in this field however argue that the said policy had been poorly researched at the time. However, Kleck and Barnes (2010) ...

Expectancy theory of motivation developed by Victor H. Vroom states that individuals are motivated to do something if the perceive the outcome as being desirable for them, and if they believe that their actions will result in successful achievement of that outcome (Kroontz, 2010). In other words, it is possible to measure the strength of a person’s motivation by multiplying the perceived value of the outcome by the confidence that this person’s efforts will substantially contribute to achievement of the goal. Formula depiction of this concept is the following: Motivation = Valence * Expectancy. According to Hill and McShane ( ...

According to Maslow, human needs are hierarchical; this means that there are particular needs that must be fulfilled first before considering the next. One’s need highly influences his or her motivation towards work. When one is motivated to work, the productivity of the company will go up. Money is the only way an employer can motivate the employees. When the workers are well paid, the money discussion will get away from the table. Instead of discussing money, the employees will dig deep into work increasing the productivity of the company. Money and incentives are, however, not the only ...

- What is the compensation package for full-time sales force at the stores? Classify by kind of compensation.

The average compensation given to employees at Mr. Paulson’s store is considerably lower than those earned by other employees in the region. A full-time employee at his store received a salary of $500 per week including benefits such as dental coverage and full medical cover. However, there is no sick or personal days’ compensation at the store. Holidays are also not paid for. Additionally, he offers commission of 2.5% to the sales persons on full-time employment if they make sales above $ ...

Question 1

Selling has a place in the marketing mix and sales managers see that personal selling as one component of its promotional decision area. Selling prompts a variety of responses. In the marketing mix, it evokes a high percentage of hostile and negative responses that include dishonest, immoral, degrading and wasteful. Good things selling themselves is a phrase that people use since selling start and it depicts its place in the marketing mix.

Question 2

In the marketing concept, there a slight difference between production orientation, sales orientation and marketing orientation. In Production orientation, company focuses on the production in an economic climate and the potential demand ...

When it comes to overcoming obstacles, no one has mastered this feat more than Amazon CEO has, Jeff Bezos has. He is an entrepreneurial visionary, who started Amazon.com when the dot.com bubble was growing at 2,400% each year (Carlson, 2011). When this bubble burst in 1997, Bezos did not let this short-term obstacle affect him nor his company. He always thought long-term and knew that short-term obstacles could be overcome when couched in well thought out long-term goals. This long-term thinking paid off. Amazon.com emerged from the dot.com crash and now sells everything – including the kitchen sink. Three ...

Organization Behavior

Organization Behavior

Introduction

The different organizations in which individuals work influence their thoughts, actions, and feelings in the workplace and even out of it. On the same note, individual’s thoughts, actions, and feelings also have a direct influence on the organizations in which they work. In a very dynamic and competitive business world, organizations must remain steadfast and concerned about the understanding of organizational behavior and culture (Greenberg, 2010). It is through this understanding that organizations will communicate, grow, and learn the different cultures, behaviors, and diversity factors that constitute the organizations and its environment. An organization is a resolute system ...

1. According to Maslow’s hierarchy, which basic need does the Patagonia culture meet? What would it be like to work at Patagonia? What’s your assessment of the company’s work environment? The culture at Patagonia has fulfilled the employee’s physiological, safety, and belongingness needs (Educational Psychology Interactive). As the employees are able to afford a better than basic lifestyle it suggests that physiological needs are met. The company provides its employees with job security as the turnover rate is well below the industry average in the retail sector. This indicates that the company can retain its ...

The business sector is one of the most challenging economical sectors in the global market. To be concise, the manufacturing sector is one of the most challenging business sectors the market. There are a lot of factors that are considered while making business decisions. These factors include, financial decisions such as cutting down on costs and improving sales. The Foxconn Company is a company that deals with the Apple Company. The company manufactures i-pods and i-pads for the Apple Company and it works collaboratively with other leading technology firms. The company has been surrounded by multiple controversies concerning employee welfare ...

Introduction

Pregnancy is a special period in women’s lives and while for some women it represents a time to increase their health and safety strategies for protecting themselves and their unborn babies, for others this period is solely stressful as they are trying to cope with their substance use. The alcohol and drug consumption among pregnant women is an increasingly concerning issue, as it affects both the child-bearing women’s health and the development of the fetus and later, of the child. This essay examines three research articles that discuss the effects of alcohol and drug use during and after pregnancy, ...

Introduction

“Motivation” is a term that that is often used in association with human resource management in several organizations. Motivation can be defined as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal (Cooper, 2000). It is extremely important for a human resource manager to ensure that the employees in the organization are highly motivated as it has a direct impact on their performance at work. It is extremely important that the work force of an organization be motivated in order to ensure that they are satisfied and provide their services to the organization for a ...

The task of this paper on motivation is designed to describe the two scenarios provided from a motivation standpoint. The first chosen scenario is the one involving the person who bought a new Audi car who sees the word ‘FUSE’ lit up on the dashboard, followed by an annoying beeping sound after which the car dies. Several trips to the dealership in an effort to get the car fixed inspires emotional annoyance and creates inconvenience. The second chosen scenario involves Jill who meets Jack on a roller coaster ride and falls madly in love with him. In the beginning of their acquaintance ...

Business

The speaker Tony Robbins is a famous life coach who talks on business and specifically talks about “why we do what we do”. The speaker in the video highlights that there are invisible forces that shape us and drive action. For instance, the effective leaders are those who motivate themselves and others to action because they understand about internal motivational forces affecting human thought processes and cognitions. In addition, the resourcefulness that comprises of creativity, determination, curiosity, love, passion and resolve is more important than resources (time, money, knowledge, technology). Tony Robbins stresses his core argument that decisions make destiny ...

- The two different motivational theories that McDonald’s can use is expectancy theory and goal-setting theories. In expectancy theories each of the workers will be rewarded with a financial or non-monetary reward if they act in a way that is expected by McDonald’s management. In the goal-setting theories smart goals will be relayed to the employees by the management of McDonald’s and if the workers and employees achieve these goals they will be rewarded with a financial or non-monetary reward. (Expectancy Theory, 2014) - A good way to check this will be giving a feedback form to the customer. ...

Introduction

Leadership is an imperative tool towards the determination of the organisational performance path and sustainable operations. As such, investment into the most applicable and profound styles such as transformational and transactional leadership styles is bound to ensure highly performance-centric employees. Furthermore, including motivational theories towards ensuring highly encouraged employees towards proper performance is advisable towards profitable outcomes. Employees who are highly motivated perform towards meeting both organizational and individual targets set. Furthermore, motivation and proper leadership is bound to ensure maximization of mutual benefits in regards to employees and the organization. Thus, this paper will evaluate motivational theories and ...

Marriott Corporate

Introduction Marriott corporate is the leading company in the global hotel and lodging industry. It has its humble beginnings in a root beer franchise formed by J. Willard and Alice Marriott in 1927. The franchise slowly opened inns and acquired hotels over the years to form the Marriott Corporation. Some of the acquired hotels include the Ritz-Carlton Hotel and Renaissance Hotel. The owners established Marriott International as a derivative of the corporation, whose role was to manage and franchise hotels. Its headquarters is in Bethesda, USA. The corporation boasts 18 global brands sold in more than 72 countries. In addition, ...

Expectancy theory of motivation is based on cognitive psychology. The theory opinionates that people are motivated by their conscious expectations of what will happen if they undertake particular things. The individuals are in most cases more productive when their belief is inclined to the realization of their expectations. This essay seeks to examine the three elements of the expectancy theory in relation to the managerial motivation towards employees.

The three elements of expectancy theory include

- expectancy, - instrumentality - Valence

Expectancy

Expectancy refers to an individual’s belief that working hard will bring the desired level of performance. This effort-performance element, which can be ...

<Put your name here> <Put the name of your school / University here> The company, being in a small town, had its advantages, had its own pace of work and culture. It was acquired by larger company, forcing changes, which was welcomed in terms of increased job knowledge and standardization it brought in. With the advent of newer technologies like, internet, mobiles, etc., relevance of newspaper went down. With costs increase and lesser sales, layoff was the option, which took place once. But that was not sufficient, hence the second layoff. Challenge remained that good people ...

The behaviour of organizational employees plays a colossal role in enhancing the success of any given organization. This can be attributed to the fact that employee’s behaviour determines the choices that employees regarding a wider array of duties assigned to them. Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation offers a comprehensive analysis regarding personal behaviour. In a nutshell, the expectancy theory is based on the premise that an individual opts to behave in a certain way as they choose a behaviour over the other because of the expected results obtained from the selected behaviour (Champion, 2008). Deductively, motivation towards a certain behaviour is dependent on ...

Module/course Name

Executive Summary This paper identifies that Google Incorporation has not only focused upon the pay and financial rewards but also the extrinsic factors. Some researchers have supported the idea of rewarding employees financially and paid them higher while others have emphasized upon intrinsic factors such as recognition, appreciation and tangible benefits.

Introduction

The market today is highly competitive due to rapid globalization. Organizations, as a result, are more inclined towards making long term profits by attracting and retaining the best talent available. The main focus of the organizations today is towards motivation of its human resources so that maximum performance ...

Introduction

Many theories have emerged on ways of motivating workers as a solution to the low productivity in the working place. Since the world war, issues in the workplace have emerged, such as equality, gender discrimination, poor interpersonal and interpersonal relationships, and job dissatisfaction among other issues. Over the decades, motivation of employees has been seen as one of the most effective solutions to improve productivity in the working place. Today, many employees embrace various methods that motivate their work force such as rewards, provision of good working condition, job security, and eliminating any factor that would cause job dissatisfaction to ...

Abstract

Understanding motivation and the determinants of motivational levels in criminal justice organization is an area of interest among various researchers. Motivation is defined as the factors within or outside an individual that stimulate the desire to do something. Motives can either be intrinsic or intrinsic. Every decision to engage in particular activities or to perform particular task are influenced by the level of motivation. In this paper, three theories of motivation are discussed within the context of criminal justice. First isAchievement-Power-Affiliation Theory that states that motivation is tied to one’s need to achieve and have power. Second is ...

We often hear organizational statements coming from various companies that assert that employees are their most valuable resource or the engine of their operations. For aligning employees with the organizational plans and with firms’ business objectives, managers need to motivate them towards achieving various organizational goals. However, within an organization there are different individuals, with distinct personalities and various personal and professional needs. In this context a curiosity arises: how do managers succeed in motivating their employees? There can be applied various motivational theories for trying to identify an answer for this curiosity: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Theory ...

Management-Changing of the guard at InsureCo Case

Analysis Using Motivation Theories 1.1 Expectancy Theory With respect to the expectancy theory, two things can be pointed out very clearly. The first can be seen as the recruitment of an individual from outside the company to fill in the position of CEO. The second is that the entry of the new CEO, Gary, brought in new dynamics into the company which was against the expectations of its members. The trend of internal recruitment and promotions to fill in vacancies was discarded, and the new CEO brought in new personnel from his old company, despite excellent credentials ...

A counselor at a Summer Day Camp is expected by management to perform his duties to the letter at all times. Anyone who wanders off from his responsibilities even for a moment is sternly reprimanded and threatened that the next time such an incident happens he would be fired. One such responsibility is accommodating the limitations of campers especially during sports activities. This means adjusting one’s skill level in order to allow the campers to feel good about their performance in these games. Being young and competitive, counselors often find it difficult to adjust one’s skill level especially when ...

Executive Summary 3

Motivation.. 3

Conclusions.10

Recommendations.. 10

Reference List 12

Executive Summary In this case, Suzanne Chalmers has resigned her work at Advanced Photonics Limited (APL). Consequently, Thomas is getting worried with the recent increase in the number of workers who are leaving the company. The paper seeks to give solutions to Thomas so that the company would retain as many employees as possible. Thus, the study shall seek evidence on how the employees at APL would be motivated so as to encourage their stay in this company. Occasionally most managers have pegged the concept of employee motivation with money rewards. However, in some ...

Hierarchy of Needs Theory was created Abraham Maslow. It advocates for the fulfillment of Employee needs in terms of the lowest to the highest need. In the Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Maslow states that individuals are motivated by their needs. It is said to be the most known and probably the most used by management (Shaub, 5). His five levels of motivation are physical, social, esteem and self-actualization. As long as these needs are satisfied, Maslow says that workers will have fulfillment at work. He goes to further say that only when the lower level of need is fully ...

Question 1

The achievement of life goals in many people happen in a predetermined pattern. The individual path each person’s life pans out upon is determined by values that they set out to achieve. The following of given values this paper is going to evaluated the values needed to achieve a certain life goal. I being an aspiring Hotel manager in future do have the values that I follow and feel that will help me in achieving that goal in the future. The advancement of life starting from graduation up to retirement will follow the following values. - Achieving a comfortable/prosperous life ...

Question 1

The achievement of life goals in many people happen in a predetermined pattern. The individual path each person’s life pans out upon is determined by values that they set out to achieve. The following of given values this paper is going to evaluated the values needed to achieve a certain life goal. I being an aspiring top executive in future do have the values that I follow and feel that will help me in achieving that goal in the future. The advancement of life starting from graduation up to retirement will follow the following values. - Achieving a comfortable/prosperous life ...

Expectancy Theory

The case reflects the need for proper managerial skill in order to realize the organization expectation or goal and objectives. The organization opts to utilize its strength to outshine their competitors in the market share by making sales volumes. Management in an organization is the key factor to determine the future of its operations and the life span of the organization within the market share. According to Dubrin, (2008) it clearly outlines that it essential to incorporate and efficient and effective management in a the organization to enable the smooth operations. This would result to a good relationship between different department hence ...

Abstract

Motivation plays a significant role in the performance of an employee in an organization. Business and management experts that tend to ensure an organization maintains and treats its employees well have developed several types of motivation. A study carried out at Sultan Qaboos University forms the case study for this topic. According to Ivancevich (2010), employee motivation assists in improving their productivity and performance at work in order to make an organization achieve its business objectives. The following discussion focuses on three main questions. First, it determines factors contributing to some employees performing better than others do. Secondly, it determines ...

There were a wide range of personalities at play in Armageddon. Harry Stamper, was the primary leader within the story, with AJ the ambitious next generation aspirant, his daughter Grace embodied the strong, supportive and determined woman of the modern era. The various personalities of his crew aptly represented the various excesses of the common man. Rockhound loved women, brilliant yet needing leadership and adventure. Bear was a tremendous physical presence, yet very much a member of the team. Max portrayed the troubled first mate that sought to make good for his children. Dan Truman the NASA leader, led the government forces, yet ...

Motivation is a complex concept of management in workplace. Literally, its meaning is 'to move' which is derived form of a Latin word “movere”. Motivation is fundamentally the state associated with the perspective of an individual representing his/her strength about exerting for a specific behaviour. It is basically an internal drive which stimulates, upholds and regulates the priorities of a person’s actions. The existence of motivation along with it nature can be deduced from experience about the behaviour through observation. A manager becomes capable of effectively blending the organizational goals with the individuals’ aims through the use of motivational models. In simpler ...

Introduction

There is vast scholarly literature which has analyzed the impact of high level leadership, organizational culture and the practices of human resource with the performance of an organization. According to scholars from SHRM, organizational performance does not only depend on specific practices followed by human resource professionals but also the influence that is caused on the human resource practices by the organizational climate and high level management leaders in bringing out favourable transformation to an organization. Going by this stand, it is essential to review certain qualities that top management leaders have which mandates specific human resource practices to ...

Creative Communication Problem

Although in the past I have never had a difficult communication problem at any job or in my graduate studies I am experiencing a very challenging problem at my employment. I have a position at Republic Airways and I have been very content working there. Recently a new Human Resources manager was hired. I have never had any bad performance comments in any of my employee evaluations so I have been shocked at the way the new manager treats me. I try to remain very professional and answer any question she asks me very directly. Unfortunately she is never please with what I ...

Individual Essay

Human resource management refers to the function that concentrates on the management, recruitment of employees and provision of guidance to employees within an organization. When all the human resource components are carried out and accomplished optimally, it will be said to be effective human resource. In human resource, there has to be a sociological framework which is used to effectively explain the workplace behavior of employees. This framework has to be as compelling as possible to ensure that the explanation of the employees’ behavior is well identified and explained comprehensively and accurately. There are also psychological theories that are very ...

1. Motivational Theories: (Expectancy Theory v/s Equity theory of motivation) Expectancy Theory: The theory suggested by Victor H Vroom puts it forth that if a person needs to be motivated, then he should actually believe in the worth of the outcome of the task that he is to perform. Only then he can motivate himself towards putting in his earnest of efforts to achieve the task. Equity theory of motivation: This theory emphasizes on the employee’s need of being treated in a just manner in the organization. The social comparison process forms the basis of the Equity theory ...

History of the Study of Organizational Behavior: Individual Work Motivation

In light of the diverse workforce at our organization, we have put in place a mandatory training program provided to all employees. The objectives of this training are to instill an appreciation of working with colleagues from a variety of cultures, social backgrounds, and belief systems. Not only focused on presenting the legislation enforced by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, the training is designed to provide appreciation of the spirit behind these laws which make it illegal to discriminate because of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, disability or genetic information. Having run for some time now, the results ...

The expectancy theory of motivation has been first developed by Victor Vroom in 1964. It attempts to explain the choice of behaviour, which individuals make in response to the motivational stimuli (Koontz & Weihrich, 2008). According to Vroom people try to achieve a goal only if they believe that the final result is worth their effort and if they understand the connection between their actions and the achievement of the final objectives. Therefore, motivation can be defined as a product of the anticipated value of the final result and the probability of achieving this result. Based on the expectancy theory, human ...

Expectancy theory

The “Expectancy Theory” is a theory in motivation pioneered by Victor Vroom (Droar, 2006). It is about the decisions a people make, and it suggests that an individual will choose to behave in a certain way. This is because individuals are motivated to choose a specific behavior over others because of the expected results. This theory proposes that behavior results from known choices among a variety of choices whose goal is to restore satisfaction and reduce pain. According to Vroom & Kenneth (June 1968, p. 30) an employee’s performance will depend on characteristic factors such as abilities, knowledge, and skills. There are three ...

In the first case study, the Two Men and a Truck, the first motivational theory portrayed is the theory of acquired needs, which is demonstrated by Mary Ellen Sheets, the owner. Through her growing motivations, Mary became self-sufficient and achieved entrepreneurial success in her business. After franchising the business, it was clear that Mary was focused, especially in the customer service. By ensuring that the employees had clean uniforms and personalized business cards among other symbols of status, she appealed to her employee’s intrinsic motivation. There is also an evidence of extrinsic motivation portrayed by Mary in her ...

Abstract

The paper deals with four main sections of leadership. These include leadership styles, dependency theory of power, expectancy theory of motivation, and performance appraisal in a company. Each section is discussed in details and examples of relevant scenarios given. Mainly, the paper identifies leadership styles in given scenarios, gives an explanation of the dependency and expectancy theories of motivation. Moreover, performance appraisal process in a company has also been discussed.

Key words: leadership styles, power, dependency, expectancy, performance appraisal.

Task 1: leadership styles

Identifying Leadership Styles

Leader A can be categorized as a level 5 leader. This is because he/she has transformed the company to a high ...

Victor Vroom (1964)

According to this theory, people can work faster if only some of the conditions would prevail. Firstly if a person knows that his or her effort would lead to him, her being rewarded then he, or she is likely to work best. but still the kind of reward still determine the impact of motivation in that if reward is not satisfying the individual’s important need then such individual may not be as motivated like another individual who is expecting his or her effort to yield a reward that would satisfy his or her important need. Therefore, this theory implies that ...