Essays on Extinction

Introduction

Language endangerment refers to the level of risk involved in making a language become suppressed and eventually fall out of use. It may not be possible for regional language speakers to forecast the extinction of their languages. This persuasive essay aims to convince the low variety language speakers in China that they can overcome the dominance of popular languages like the Mandarin and English.
Mandarin is widely used in the Chinese education system which makes it the official language. On the other hand, English is commonly used all over the world hence posing a threat to regional languages in Continue reading...

Classical Conditioning

According to Basford and Slevin (2003), classical conditioning relates to the normal-unlearned stimulus-response, which is normally experienced during reflex actions. The result is that a subject exposed to the neutral stimuli will respond in a similar manner as when exposed to the unconditioned stimuli. Examples include having lunch at noon and taking a bath in the morning. Extinction of classical conditioning occurs when the pairing between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus is stopped.

Components of Classical Conditioning

- Neutral stimulus; this refers to a stimulus, which does not generate any response.
- Unconditioned Stimulus: this refers to a stimulus, which can Continue reading...

Cougars are beautiful, elusive wild cats. They are known by several names including, Painter, Florida Panther and Mountain Lion among others. In Latin America, the Puma concolor is commonly called Puma. Just as their habitats vary among wide ranges, so does the color of their coats. Depending on their environment, their coats may be brown, sandy tan, light silver or gray. Their offspring are born with spots that diminish into a shiny coat when they become adults. No matter how dark or light the cougar is in color, it can surely hide in the background within its habitat. Although Continue reading...

Palm oil trees originated in West Africa and were brought into South East Asia in the twentieth century . Around 250, 000 tonnes of palm oil were then exported annually from South East Asia and the number has now increased to 60,000,000 tonnes. At the very beginning, palm oil was used in candles and as a lubricant for machinery. After the discovery of hydrogenation process in Europe, the demand for palm oil increased and after the World War II, it was utilized in many western food products. Palm oil is the most commonly used oil in the world. Continue reading...

Since the ancient history, people have been wearing clothes made from leather and animal fur. One cannot imagine a cave man without a small piece of leather hanging around his waist. Then, it was the only material that they could use for making clothes. However, since the modern ages, leather and fur coats have become the synonyms for wealth and the branding mark for many fashion designers. On the other hand, the planet is facing with the extinction of animal species that are killed only for its fur or skin. Leather and fur coats should be outlawed so that Continue reading...

About five years ago, I had an unpleasant experience while driving with my friends. We got in a car and drove all over the city. At one point, while I was sitting in the back seat, a friend who was driving caused an accident. Fortunately, nobody was injured. However, I got very scared and couldn’t calm down for a while. Soon after that a friend offered to drive me home and I had to sit in the back. When I entered the car, I felt enormous fear. This can be explained by classical conditioning. In fact, this is Continue reading...

Animal testing is one of much debated issues in modern times. Millions of animals are used every year for the purpose of animal testing across the world. Animals go through a process that causes enormous pain and sufferings during animal testing. A number of issues are related to animal testing and one of them is the extinction of animals. A number of animals are on the verge of extinction and this issue has been raised by various animal lovers and animal rights organizations. This paper presents a succinct analysis of the animal testing along with discussing how animal testing Continue reading...

Extinction is the phenomenon when a behavior, that was previously observed, disappears from a person when it is not reinforced (Miltenberger, 2012). When extinction is performed constantly over a long period of time, the undesired behavior gradually disappears, in the longer run. However, in the short term, the subject of extinction is likely demonstrates extinction burst. This burst more frequently occurs when the extinction has just started. The burst is commonly a phenomenal increase in the observed undesired behavior. This increase is temporary and does not last for a long time. Extinction is observed in both conditions: operant and Continue reading...

Essay 1

GENETICALLY ENGINEERED MOSQUITOES COULD BE A VITAL WEAPON AGAINST MALARIA: ECOLOGICAL THINK PERSPECTIVE
INTRODUCTION
The ecological system continues to experience a number of transformations in so far as environmental wellbeing is concerned. The text can be analyzed and evaluated from the ecological think perspective in so far as nonhuman charisma characterization is concerned. Species can be modified into different forms to the extent that they are able to conform to the modes so desired. Different ecosystems have different species, some of which are very harmful to the existence of other species. Mosquitoes are by far some of the most Continue reading...

- (6 pt.) Describe the effects harvest, disturbance, and nutrient enrichment by humans have had on other wild populations. Be sure to explain how these activities act as selective agents and what the most-fit phenotype will be under these circumstances.
Human activities have emerged to be the most precarious and dreadful to the wild population. Notably, human interfere with biodiversity and wild population in a number of ways. Overharvesting includes activities such as target haunting, gathering or fishing for a particular species. Overharvesting has been associated with extinction of some species of organisms. For example, advancement in technology after the Continue reading...

Definition of the concept

Differential reinforcement, also known discrimination training, is the ability to expose a particular behavior in response to a specific stimulus situation and extinguish the very behavior in a different stimulus situation. The cue that generates the reinforcement is known as the differential stimulus or the discriminative stimulus; SD. A different cue would create extinction by not inducing the same behavior. The stimulus that does not result into reinforcement is denoted as s-delta. In essence, discriminative reinforcement is the training of the mind to distinguish and respond differently to various stimuli.

Example of the concept

Ken is a 4-year old boy. At night whenever Continue reading...

- Define the concept: 97 words
The concept of extinction basically means the withholding of rein forcers in a systemic way that has in the past have helped in maintaining behaviour. It is a general misconception that extinction is similar to ignoring and elimination whereas in reality this is not the truth. If the frequency of reinforcement for behaviour is high, then it is more likely that the behaviour of that specific person will extinguish at a much faster pace. In such cases, as the deprivation level for the reinforcement is poor or nil altogether, extinction of behaviour occurs Continue reading...

When used in behavioral psychology, the term reinforcement means a consequence which strengthens an organism’s behavior in future whenever the specific behavior is preceded by an antecedent stimulus. This can be observed as an increase in the frequency of the behavior or also as an increase in the duration in which the behavior is exhibited by the organism. Punishment on the other hand is used in psychology to mean the imposition, authoritatively, of something that is unpleasant or undesirable upon an individual or even upon a group of people as a protest against the behavior that has been Continue reading...

Science has advanced so much that scientists are now bring extinct animals back to life- they call it de-extinction . De-extinction is done by two methods- cloning and selective breeding. Cloning is a process in which the DNA of an organism that is desired to be cloned is taken out and infused in the cell of another existing organism belonging to the same class. When fertilization takes place in the existing organism, it is able to produce an off-spring that looks exactly like the organism which was desired to be cloned. Selective breeding is the method in which DNA from Continue reading...

Sharks are a type of fish that are known to live in salty water, except for the bull and the rivers sharks which can live in both salty and fresh waters. They are large animals at the top of the food chain, which means that they have limited predators feeding on them. They come in various species and are a sister group to the rays. Although sharks are not very harmless to human beings (research shows that only 12 people are killed by sharks every year, while human beings kill a worrying 100 million sharks annually), the marine animals Continue reading...

Neanderthals are the members of the genus Homo and are known extinct relatives of Homo sapiens. A large amount of fossils and other archives have been collected that has substantiated the presence of these mysterious beings. The first skeletal fossils of Neanderthals were discovered in Germany in 1856, in the Neander Valley, where a group of quarrymen found 16 bone pieces including a skull, which they thought to be a bear. The bones were analyzed to determine that the fossils belonged to ancient relatives of humans. It has been close to 150 years since the accidental discovery of Neanderthals, Continue reading...

Environmental Studies

The need for a precise forecasting of the impacts of climate change on the future distribution of the Earth's principle biome is increasing. In this paper, forecasting methods covered include: the niche-theory models which categorize species by habitat (particularly environmental conditions where species may persist or perish). The general circulation models and the species-area curve models which consider large groups of species or all species.
The existing climate models based on approximations of increasing carbon dioxide and, to some extent, by lessening sulfate aerosols, forecast that temperatures will rise by 2.5-10.4oF (1.4-5.8oC) between the year1990 and 2100. Greater warming Continue reading...

Introduction

For more than 150 million years, dinosaurs roamed across the earth. However, most dinosaurs became extinct suddenly within a short time. The last of the dinosaurs are estimated to have died about 65 million years ago. The cause of their extinction continues to be a mystery, with a number of factors such as diseases, climate change, geologic events and changing plant communities being thought to have played a part in the demise of dinosaurs. Of late, theories of dinosaur extinction have been the subject of much controversy and debate. The explanation that seems to have the support of many Continue reading...

Abstract

The K–Pg mass extinction took place at the end of Cretaceous Era and the onset of the Paleogene System. At the end of the Cretaceous, just before the K–Pg event, between 40% and 75% of marine life forms and terrestrial species disappear from fossilized records. Included in K-Pg mass extinction were well-known groups as flightless dinosaurs, related reptile species and many species of marine plankton.

Introduction

The K-Pg (Cretaceous–Paleogene) mass extinction, also termed as the K-T (Cretaceous–Tertiary) extinction, is documented as a mass extinction of nearly three-quarters of fauna and flora on Earth, which includes all Continue reading...

Behavior is termed as the way and means of getting something or rather avoid something. It is important to note that the behavior is earned and is an action that is both observable and measurable. It is observable in the aspect of what is seen or heard. For instance, if a subject is speaking, yelling, writing or even dancing. The behavior is more about how a certain feeling is expressed for instance by making faces, yelling, or even portraying various body postures. Behaviors can also be measured in that it can be defined and described. For instance, in this Continue reading...

Science is a body of knowledge produced by scientists with emphasis on observation, explanation and prediction of real world occurrences. Since the classical antiquity, empirical investigations of the natural world were used to advance, develop and prove ideas by the likes of Aristotle. Scientific methods were employed during the middle ages by scientists such as Roger Bacon and Ibn al-Haytham to originate and determine scientific ideas. Modern science can be traced back to the 16th and 17th centuries resulting from the scientific revolution, has established science as a source for the growth of knowledge. This knowledge is developed from Continue reading...

Extinction of species is a natural process that has occurred since the beginning of life on earth. Organisms most suited to the current environmental conditions survive and reproduce whereas those less poorly suited either do not survive or contribute little or nothing to the genetic capital of the next generation. This process is known as natural selection or survival of the fittest. Anthropogenic influences on this process, especially in the last century has effected this process through habitat or ecosystem conversion and the input of pollution in the air, water and soil (text book, year).
For example, the input Continue reading...

Biodiversity is the range variation among microorganisms, animals and plants. Biodiversity enhances the quality way of living that is not easy to quantify. The human beings depend on the biodiversity for food; forestry and agriculture, shelter and warmth; use of forest products and fibers, medicines; synthesized and tradition medicines. Besides of biological resources biodiversity also supplies indirect services to human beings such as clean air, water, and fertile soil.
The ecological and its normal function is disrupted and distraught when the ecosystem losses its population, or group of species. The distribution and functioning of ecosystem is highly affected by Continue reading...

Introduction

Conditioning can be defined as the arrangement of two or more incidences characterized experimentally via separate chronological relationship. Learning takes place at the behavioral, cognitive and neural levels with four crucial phenomena that are caused by conditioning (Kalat, 2011). This paper seeks to explain the meaning of these phenomena and show how they would exhibit themselves in human beings.
The four basic learning phenomena that take place due to conditioning are acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination (Kalat, 2011). Acquisition refers to the advancement of a conditioned reply consequent to conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) experiments (Kalat, 2011). Continue reading...

Introduction

When we talk of animal extinction, we talk of a species in particular. So when there is an extinction of an animal we simply mean that a specific species no longer exists or have died. So when the members or individuals of a certain group die and cease to be present in the earth’s surface then we will be in order to say that extinction has taken place.
It is also possible to say that an animal can extinct when the available individuals of a certain species are not able to produce thus making it inevitable for such Continue reading...

Global warming is probably among some of the most major issues that our planet and its inhabitants are facing. Indeed, the phenomenon has some very alarming effects on agriculture and on animals, and it has even more frightening effects on the human population. The media and politicians are often heard debating over the fact about global warming. However, even though there is widespread disagreement about the causes, but the reality of the global and measurable effects of global warming cannot be denied. The fact of the matter is that, it is the human race is the source of the Continue reading...

Over the years, there has been the growing concern on environmental issues. Current changes in the environment have led to developments in which different people and organizations have come up to try and advocate for the conservation of the environment. There are various issues and concepts that have come up in relation to the environmental change. This essay discusses four of these issues.

Peak Oil

The current forms of energy use tend to be a great concern in the world. It is argued that the modern forms of energy. ASPO (Para 4) has issued statements with reference to the issue of Continue reading...

Psychology: Behaviourism and Free Will

I. Introduction: Behaviorism and Free Will
Behaviorism (or learning theory) focuses primarily on overt or observable and quantifiable behaviors and excludes subjective phenomenon such as motives, feelings, and so on. It explains the processes, principles and laws by which learning occurs. Many schools of thought under behaviorism include Pavlovian, also known as classical or respondent, conditioning.
Under the basic tenet of classical conditioning, individuals learn by means of associating neutral stimulus with a meaningful response. Another behaviorism is Skinnerian, a.k.a. operant or instrumental, conditioning. Operant conditioning is the process whereby learning takes place when an action is done repeatedly Continue reading...

Introduction

Mining process is an industrially based process that occurs in a natural environment. Its primary potential problems include disturbance of geological structure of the area. It generates enormous volumes of waste solid material and alters the ecology of the area involved, . This paper looks at the mining of phosphates in St Pierre Islands and its impacts. It also gives the possible mitigation measures together with underlying advantages and disadvantages.

Statement of the problem

St Pierre Island is a small, uninhabitable island to the north of Seychelles. The geologically unstable island is under attack by the sea waves. Its foundation rock that is made Continue reading...

Abstract

Theory of evolution as proposed by Darwin has for long hinged on the fossil records to prove the process of evolution. However, the prevalent gaps in the fossils led way to the development of the punctuated equilibrium theory that was proposed by Eldredge and Gould as an alternative to Darwin’s phyletic gradualism theory. The punctuated equilibrium postulated that speciation occurs in an isolated peripheral subsect of population as a rapid change after a period of stasis. Unlike the anagenetic speciation of phyletic gradualism, punctuated equilibrium promotes the concept of cladogenetic speciation. However, punctuated equilibrium does consider rapid anagenetic Continue reading...

Introduction

Many thinkers and scientists have proposed models and theories about how people learn; they are called learning theories. The learning theories are classified as behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, humanism and design-based. Behaviorism is based on the supposition that learning occurs for an organism through interactions with the environment. Behaviouristic school assumes that an organism always responds to a stimulus and the ‘responses’ are depends on the nature of the stimulus, i.e. rewarding or pain giving. Here, the learner is considered as a system that has the capability to respond to a stimulus and the learner is passive. The definition that Continue reading...

Abstract

Peoples’ behaviors are many and complex; people are known to cheat, lie, and sometimes kill. Long before even human started to gain interest in studying human behaviors field such as theology, philosophy, and psychology focus was to explain human behavior. However, in the resent past, the development of scientific methods and tools scientists have put in place systematic procedures to be used in the study of human behavior. In this light, scholars and researcher have developed theories that tend to explain human behavior. This theories can be broadly be classified into, behavioral theories, cognitive theories, humanist theories, personality theories, Continue reading...

Abstract

The Great American Interchange lasted for about two million years between North America and South America. The objective of the essay is to look at the symmetrical results of the great American interchange in the beginning and how the interchange became asymmetrical after time progressed. The unbalanced nature of the interchange offers a model to explain the asymmetrical results of the land-mammal interchange between the two Americas. Both Geological and biological data are looked into the get insights the past and present distributions of fauna.

Introduction

The Great American Interchange is a crucial paleo zoogeographic event that occurred between North Continue reading...

Development Through Operant or Classical Conditioning

Phobias and Addictions:
Development Through Operant or Classical Conditioning
How and why phobias and addictions develop are a continual area of research for psychologists and their colleagues in related fields. While many theories exist as to why people have phobias or become addicted, including genetic predisposition and others, the roles of classical conditioning and operant conditioning in the conditions of phobias and addictions is an important area to explore because it provides more information on why the conditions exist and new possibilities in treatment. Phobias can be developed through classical conditioning and addictions can be developed through operant conditioning, Continue reading...

Introduction

According to Frankham, Ballou and Briscoe (2009), conservation genetics is a basic and applied science that deals with molecular biology, ecology, mathematical modeling and construction of family relationships. For scientists to apply management techniques, they must understand the genetic relationships that exist between the different organisms under study. In addition, the organisms being studied are usually endangered species. Endangered species are those species that are at a high danger of instant extinction (Frankham, Ballou &Briscoe, 2009).

Causes of Extinction

Most extinction results from human factors (Frankham, Ballou &Briscoe, 2009). Over the previous century, the human population has grown exponentially. This has resulted Continue reading...

THE SCOPES TRIAL

The scopes trial is also famously known as the scopes monkey trial and was a trial which involved the state of Tennessee against John Thomas Scopes. The charge against scopes was teaching evolution. Apparently back in 1925 it was illegal to teach anything about evolution in schools that were funded by the state. Back then people believed in the divinity of the bible. Anything in the bible was considered truth that was incontestable by any human being irrespective of the evidence at hand. Teaching evolution was tantamount to blasphemy against morally accepted truths by the people. The Buttler act Continue reading...

Abstract

Operant conditioning refers to the process of behavior learning in which an individual receives external stimuli that can affect learning outcomes. The term was first used by Skinner, even though Watson and Thorndike already understood the procedures of operant conditioning, with the exception of continuous stimuli that were first applied by Skinner. The five procedures that explain the types of stimuli that can affect human behavior include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, and extinction. In practice, operant conditioning is used to teach behavior to children, modify behavior in psychotherapy patients, and eliminate old or introduce new Continue reading...

Trophic levels

What are the leading primary producers and top consumers in the ecosystem you researched?
The top consumers in the food chain include Swanson’s hawk, coyote, grey fox, kit fox, and great horned owl. These organisms are the top consumers since they feed on tertiary consumers. They are not consumed by any organism in the food chain. The top consumers in the food web are omnivores, which feed mainly on other organism. They complete the food web by feeding on other organism that feed on primary consumers. Termites are also primary leading producers since they feed on litter found Continue reading...

More than often, language has been considered as the most obvious form of human communication. This is because, the use of either oral, written or non-verbal - language in each and every society remain as the most refined and fundamental form of communication among individuals. In most cases, the use of language is wide as it fulfills a wide range of functions that are of high critical importance to both individual and social life (Tollefson 3). As a result, in all human ventures there exists a correlation between language as a tool used to negotiate, to articulate and create Continue reading...

1. model.

2. learner

3. shaper.

4. reinforcer.

1. aversion conditioning

2. higher-order conditioning

3. systematic desensitization

4. Flooding

Tolman showed that rats can learn about their environment without reinforcement. His research illustrated the difference between

1. learning and performance.

2. association and reinforcement

3. goals and learning.

4. learning and mapping.

Taste aversions differ from other instances of classical conditioning because

1. only one association may be required.

2. the US can occur hours after the CS.

3. the US and the CS must be contiguous.

4. both a and b

 
You are absolutely terrified of dogs. Your behavior therapist is taking you to a kennel where you will be surrounded by 10 dogs. This therapeutic approach is known as

1. flooding

2. higher-order conditioning.

Continue reading...