Essays on Hydrolysis

1. a. The pKa value of an amino acid is an indication of how strong or weak an amino acid is, based on the said acid’s dissociation constant. An amino acid that has a high pKa value is weaker than on that has a low pka value. Given that an acid’s dissociation constant is Ka, the pKa value is given by the formula: pKa = -log10Ka pH = pKa + log ([A-]/[HA]),It follows that for Cys12, 7.4= 7.2 + log([Cys-]/[HCys]) 7.4-7.2 = log([Cys-]/[HCys]) 0.2 = log([Cys-]/[HCys]) 100.2= Cys-/HCys Therefore, Cys-/HCys = 10-4Similarly, ...

Chemistry

2. The nano carrier needs to remain in suspension in H2O, PBS, human serum, etc. What type of polymer do you need to use to decorate the surface of the nanocarrier to achieve this goal? In order to maintain the nanocarrier in suspension in water, Phosphate-Buffered Saline (PBS), human serum a suitable solution a polymer is needed on its surface. The polymer used needs to accomplish three goals. The polymer needs to decorate the nanocarrier surface to enhance suspension and secondly, to prevent protein absorption. Another characteristic is that the polymer evades the immune system. PLGA poly(lactic-co-)glycolic ...

Scientific Report

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Abstract

The experiment was performed to analyze the outcomes of temperature on the ability of fungal and bacterial amylase to breakdown starch to maltose. Therefore, the study will reveal the optimal temperature for amylase activity. The initial steps include preparing the materials and tools used during the experiment. A timetable for comparing temperature and function was generated. Test tubes and plates were properly labeled. Iodine was needed for every spot plate so that the fungal amylase, bacterial amylase, fungal amylase and the starch solution can be added to the iodine in a time and temperature dependent fashion. Observing ...

Introduction

Quality is the characteristic of a service or a good to be fit for use by the customer or the consumer. The pharmaceutical quality means the production of a product that is free of contamination that gives the therapeutic benefit that is labeled in the container to the customer. This quality is either evaluated in vitro or vivo by the tests performed. In quality design, the vitro product is ensured to have good performance and the same provide a similar quality in the vivo performance test. In this case, the product performance is related to the product performance.

Quality by Design (QbD)

This ...

Abstract

The prodrug design is an efficient and powerful method that can be practised in a wide range of parent drug compounds, administration routes and preparations. Its main goal is to overcome the drawbacks of regular drug compounds by effectively targeting the drug's particular site of action for improved therapy. This assignment seeks mainly to depict the different classifications of prodrugs and the role these play in drug design through the use of several examples. A brief description highlighting the modern aspects of prodrug design is also covered here.

Introduction:

Prodrugs are inactive forms of drug compounds that undergo chemical or ...

Organism # 6

Molecular Biosciences 101 Section # Purpose Materials and Methods Gram Staining: Three circles were marked at the bottom of a clean glass slide and they were labeled as gram(+), gram(-) and unknown respectively. The three labeled circles were then inoculated with microorganism 6 using an inoculating loop. The bacterial smears were then air dried and heat fixed over a gentle flame. The slide was then flooded with primary stain, crystal violet for a minute by placing it on a staining rack. Excess crystal violet was washed off with a gentle stream of water. Thereafter, gram iodine was added and ...

INFRARED SPECTROPHOTOMETRY AND ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Infrared Spectrophotometry and Organic Chemistry Infrared (IF) Spectrophotometry is designed to determine the sample by measuring infrared radiation absorption of wavenumbers within the region of 4,000-400 cm-1 at different wavenumbers, as it passes through the sample. This technique employs the property that the IF absorption spectrum of the material is typical of its chemical structure. IR spectra are demonstrated in charts drawn via plotting on the abscissa and the absorbances or transmittances on the ordinate. Except when indicated, when the spectrum of the sample is the same in the intensity of absorption at a similar wavenumber to the ...

Full title- A COMPARISON OF THE INHIBITORY EFFECTS OF METAL IONS

Enzymes are an essential part for the functioning of the human system. Most of the enzymes require binding of metal ions and other non-protein components for their appropriate functioning. Such non proteins, which facilitate the functioning of enzymes, are called cofactors. The cofactors can be an organic cofactor as Thymine Pyrophosphate (TPP), Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD), Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide (NAD); or inorganic cofactors like metal ions, Mg2+, Cu2+, Mn2+, Zn2+ and Iron-sulphur clusters. When the enzyme is bound to a cofactor, ready to carry out its function, it is known as a ‘Holoenzyme.' An enzyme without a ...

Diabetes is a burning issue all over the world. World health organization has shown concerns on the prevalence and incidents of diabetes. In USA, 29.1 million people or 9.3% of the population; diagnosed or undiagnosed have diabetes. (CDC, 2012). As per National Diabetes Fact Sheet, 2011 215, 000 people in USA have type-I or type-II diabetes. Thus, diabetes is a disease penetrating all age groups. Treatment of diabetes has a few advancement in the recent past. Apart from general oral hypoglycemic agents and injectable insulin there are islet transplantation surgeries also available for diabetes. There is a wide scope of treatment of diabetes ...

- Explain how enzymes are involved in processes such as the breakdown of fructose Enzymes are organic catalysts. In this context, organic denotes the matter in question is generated or is obtained from a living life form. The word Catalyst indicates a matter that has the aptitude to boost a chemical reaction’s rate, and is neither transformed nor damaged by the reaction that it speeds up.

Many chemical reactions occur but a slow rate that their progress would seem to be imperceptible at normally encountered environmental temperature. However, the enzymes are specific to certain functions. Generally, they may speed up a reaction, ...

Protein degradation is a regulatory process of all living beings that helps to weed out proteins that are faulty in nature. The fault maybe in their sequence or folding. The proteins are degraded via ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). The proteasome is made up of an outer activating module and an inner core particle (CP), which in turn is made up of outer α subunits and inner β subunits. The α subunits guard a N-terminal gates pore, which open up when proteasome activators (PA) binds to it. The β subunits have the active sites that can broadly accommodate different faulty proteins for degradation. ...

The experiment aimed to show that Blm10 protein elevates the turnover of proteasomal substrate through an active gating mechanism. This was to be done by showing that Blm10 enhances degradation that is proteasome-mediated in vitro using hypophosphorylated unstructured tau-441 as the substrate.

The objective was achieved using various stains such as BY4741, yMS63, yMS94, yMS122b, yMS131, yMS152, yMS159, and yMS476 among others. To start with, the proteasomal activity was assayed by determining gate opening in yeast CP/20S proteasome by the C terminal peptides. Phenotypic analysis was also done by growing the stains overnight in YPD and diluted to a density ...

Introduction

Initially there were beliefs that, MMPs are jointly able to degenerate all constituents making up the extracellular matrix (ECM) together with basement membrane that confines their operations to tissue reconstruction as well as the preservation. Nonetheless, the contemporary studies also signify that MMP-1 is responsible for controlling the production or else the activation of the chemokines. At this point, it is critical to understand that MMP-1 is among other MMPs. Similarly, the knowledge holds it that MMP- 1 cleaves a peptide bond beforehand a residue comprising of a hydrophobic adjacent chain, for instance Met and Leu. The other sideways chains cleaved ...

Membrane transport refers to the mechanisms by which ions and other small molecules move across the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane. The lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane allows the passage of certain molecules down their concentration gradient. This passage depends on the charge, size and polarity of the molecule. Non-polar molecules and small polar molecules diffuse easily across the cell membrane by the process of simple diffusion. However, it becomes difficult for charged polar molecules to enter the cell even though the concentration of the ion is more outside the cell when compared to the cytosol. At ...

INTRODUCTION

Baghouse filters are fabric filter units consisting of one or more isolated sections containing an array of fabric bags (Vatavuk, 1998). Shapes of these bags range from round, flat, tube-shaped, to pleated cartridges. In theory, gas containing high particulate matter level passes through the fabric bag surface. The particulate matter is retained while the cleaned gas is either recycled to the process or vented off the exhaust. This paper attempts to discuss the different concepts behind baghouse filters in relation to environmental engineering. Specifically, this paper discusses (a) particle pollution, (b) baghouse filter principle, (c) filter media selection, (d) types of ...

Introduction

There has been a rise in the concern relating to how human activities are affecting the environment. Over the last number of years, issues relating to environmental destruction and pollution are a concern of almost every nation in the world. The increasing use and exploitation of natural resources are resulting in the development of unwanted consequences such as increasing waste, which is affecting the lives of many individuals. As such recycling is aimed at reducing the amount of waste products that is discharged into the environment. According to Hill (2003), recycling is the process of changing waste products into usable products. ...

Introduction

Enzymes are proteins which have the ability to facilitate metabolic reactions without being used up in the reaction. The enzyme amylase is responsible for facilitating the hydrolysis of starch to form sugars that are then assimilated by the body. Amylase is an enzyme needed for the digestion of carbohydrates for nutritional purposes. Starch is one of the most important sources of energy in the body. Starch is a polymer made up of several monosaccharide and disaccharide monomers. However, starch cannot be absorbed and used in the body as it is (Cornish-Bowden, 134). Consequently, it has to be digested into smaller ...

Abstract

As the majority of the people are becoming more aware of the adverse effects of petroleum-based products consumption and of the continued diminishing of natural fuel oil reserves all over the world, the search for more environmentally friendly and renewable substitute is becoming the focus of many studies. Such substitute products include the soybean-based adhesives, and soybean-based adhesive bonded wood composites and particle boards. In this study, a “literature review” was conducted in order to identify the many issues associated with the search for a replacement for petroleum-based adhesives. Accordingly, the issues identified are (1) environmental friendliness, such as the biodegradability ...

Identification of Codeine by Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)

Group Members: Aim The present practical exercise aims at examining a commercial Panadeine tablet for the presence of codeine and paracetamol using GC-MS. Introduction Methyl morphine, codeine, occurs in opium at low concentrations. Codeine is a pro-drug because it undergoes metabolism or demethylation, in vivo, to form the active analgesic morphine. The experiment 3 involves a pH dependent extraction technique. The process separates the active constituents of Panadeine. Before extracting Panadeine, however, Eosin B undergoes extraction in order to demonstrate the effect of pH on the solubility of the compound. The GC-MC allows for the separation of a mixture ...

EWB Challenge 2014Plan Timor Leste

Sustainable Engineering Practice South Australian Institute of Business and Technology Executive Summary This report provides details on the project that aims at facilitating for the creation of an anaerobic/biogas digester in in Codo town. This is a small town that is situated at Lautern District in East Timor, and it has a population of approximately 500 people. This town lacks a system that can allow them to dispose and manage their waste in an effective manner. They bury their waste underground, and they use burning wood to serve as a means of cooking. The report will suggest various ways that ...

Chapter 8

Chemicals in action An acid and base reaction occurs when a complete exchange of electrons between the proton donor and proton acceptor occurs. In this process a salt if formed. In the definition, a salt is a substance formed from an acid by its replaceable hydrogen either wholly or partially by a metal or an equivalent radicle. Example of salt formation Mg+H2SO4→MgSO4+H2 Mg+HCl→MgCl2+H2 In the modern ionic theory, a salt is a compound of oppositely charged ions. From this point of view, there is no difference between NaCl and NaOH. Further, anhydrous aluminum chloride is not a ...

Exercise 1

- The columnar epithelium from the stomach resembles the columnar epithelium from the duodenum in many aspects. The columnar nature of the epithelium in both instances serves for increased protection of the underlying organs and organelles. The simple columnar epithelia found in the stomach and duodenum also contains the largest cytoplasmic volumes in comparison to all the other epithelia, housing organelle density and energy reserves suitable in the engagement of the most complex of secretory and absorption functions. The duodenum epithelia however, posses an extra microvillus which aids in increasing the surface area for absorption. The epithelia in the ...

The process of weathering deals with the breaking down of minerals, soils and rocks as well as synthetic materials as a result of contact with the atmosphere, biological entities and water. Weathering is slightly different from erosion, because it does not involve movement. Erosion involves the movement of water, wind, snow or other agents across minerals or rocks. Weathering simply takes place “in situ.” There are two significant types of weathering, chemical and physical. Each can involve a biological component, but the difference is that physical weathering has to do with soils and rocks breaking down as a result of directly contacting ...

Stability of Bioactive

Solubility of Protein has an effect on quality of foodstuffs especially with high amount of proteins. Enzyme hydrolysis of such food products increases solubility as well as thermal Stability but on the other hand, it also distorts its composition and in order to control this change, it is recommended to use controlled hydrolysis which regulates manufacture of peptides that distorts the taste of food products. This paper intends to discuss stability of bioactive compounds such as peptides and stability of bioactive in food products. The paper will further elaborate on problems associated with bioactive when added in fruits juices ...

The influence of the activity of the enzyme amylase on starch is governed by the following parameters.

- Temperature - Substrate concentration - Ph - Enzyme concentration. The above table shows the action of the enzyme a- amylase enzyme XK-60 varying the substrate between 100 to 300g.1-1. The table shows that between 250 to 300g1-1.the level of hydrolysis of starch is almost the same at 30.1% and 30.3%. This is deduced as to be a result of the amount of sugar obtained from the hydrolysis of starch by the enzymes. On the other hand, the rate of hydrolysis is directly proportional to the enzyme concentration. From experiments applied in the test, it was ...

Purpose

Materials and Methods Gram Stain: the test was done to differentiate Gram-positive from Gram-negative organisms. A drop of the unknown 300 was suspended on a slide and the culture spread to an oven thin film. The culture was air dried and fixed over a gentle flame. Crystal violet stain was added over the culture and allowed to stand for 60 seconds. The stain was poured off and rinsed gently. Iodine solution was added on the smear, allowed to stand for 60 seconds and the stain poured off. The slide was rinsed with running water, and a few drops of decolorizer solution ...

Q. What type of chemical bond do you believe connects the atoms of Graphene? Why?

A. A Graphene sheet is essentially a one layer thick graphite structure, an allotrope of carbon that forms hexagonal rings. The bonding in atoms of Graphene is essentially a covalent bond between carbon atoms. Each of the carbon atoms present in Graphene shares its valence electrons with three other carbon atoms forming a triple directional bond pattern on each carbon atom. This creates hexagonal ring like structures that constitute the two dimensional lattice of Graphene. Q. Based on what you have learned in this chapter about the properties of water, why is that water is able to permeate "pass through" Graphene? ...

Waste Management

Introduction Dealing with waste has become an increasing concern nowadays, since it affects people’s life quality by impacting the health, it affects the aesthetics, it jeopardizes the ecosystems and in general, it negatively impacts the environmental sustainability. Domestic waste (generated by individuals) and commercial and industrial waste represent a quotidian aspect that authorities are aiming to handle, either through applying laws and guidelines for maintaining healthy and clean cities and villages, either by applying various technologies for actually managing the waste disposals. And the processes and technologies used to manage the various types of waste differ depending on ...

In the healthcare perspective, according to Gennaro et al. (2000), biochemical reactions are the chemical reactions involved in biochemical and cellular processes and particular actions of substances that affect these processes. Understanding biochemical reactions lead to the “understanding of the molecular bases of diseases”. The knowledge of receptor sites and metabolism (among other things) direct healthcare measures in efficient therapy management. Knowing normal cellular communication and metabolic pattern chemical reactions determine conditions that are abnormal in disease states. To Giese (2013), the scope of pharmaceutical reactions involve those of pharmaceutical biomolecules and biomolecule analogues and the chemical reactions involving ...

Introduction

Bacillus Subtilis are the organisms that are aerobic, Gram Positive, spore-forming belonging to the Bacillus genus. The organisms are together with other species that are closely related play a crucial role in disease, food poisoning as well as food spoilage. Lack of methods that are standardized for the identification of the organisms whether coming from the food or environment has made the tests to be difficult. Use of morphological as well as physiological tests have offered the best ways to identify organisms in the laboratory although there are inconsistent and lack of reliance in these methods. Identification of an ...

Lab Report on preparation of Esters by Esterification

Introduction The organic esters are characterized using their pleasant and fruity odors. Some of these odors include lead to fruits such as banana, pear, and orange to have their pleasant smelling. When carboxylic acid is mixed with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid leads to the production of an ester. The strong acid is used as a catalyst and the general reaction is as below. The esterification reaction is a reversible reaction with the forward being referred to as esterification, while the reverse reaction hydrolysis. The general formula of an ester compound is as follows: The experiment aimed ...

Abstract

Amylase from Bacillus Subtilis and Aspergillus oryzae were studied as representative candidates for bacterial and fungal enzymes, respectively. The activities of these two enzymes were studies comparatively over a period of 10 minutes and at temperatures of 0, 40, 60 and 95°C. The experiment was conducted to find the most effective temperatures for bacterial amylase and fungal amylase to catalyze starch hydrolysis. The data suggest that fungal enzyme was relatively more active, particularly in the first 6 minutes, than the bacterial counterpart at 0°C. On the other hand, the fungal enzyme activity deteriorated more rapidly than that ...

Introduction

Biomass is a biological material obtained from a living organism or a recently living organism. The word biomass is derived from two Greek words; bio meaning life, and maza meaning mass (Demirbas, “Fuels from Biomass” 43). Biomass means non-fossil and bio-decomposable organic matter (originating from plants, animals and microorganisms). The products, byproducts, residues and waste from agricultural processing, all constitute biomass. Bio-waste simply means non-fossil and biodegradable waste that is composed of organic matter. Bio-wastes include food and kitchen wastes, garden and park wastes, and wastes from food processing plants. Bio-waste is therefore an element of biomass. Non-fossil wastes that are ...

Introduction

Waste biomass is usually in the form of manure, agricultural residues, municipal sewage sludge, municipal solid waste, and industrial bio-sludge which can be converted to animal feeds, alcohol fuels or industrial chemicals. There are various processes which are employed to convert this waste into the respective useful end products rather than being dumped away. The complexity of these processes depends on the kind of technologies being used. Conversions of waste biomass into renewable energy forms play a major role in reducing the dependence on crude oil and thus promote economic growth. The process of waste biomass conversion to useful products ...

INTERNET ACTIVITY:

Pyramid method was invented in the early 90’s. The pyramid shows ratios or proportions of food that a person was required to take in a day. The pyramid proposes for a high share of green vegetables just like other regional food guides. Hence its similarity but it differs with the other methods because it is a bit confusing. I wouldn’t follow the pyramid because it gives vague ratios to their food percentage it is hard to know if this is followed by everyone. The plate method is much simpler as it has individual assistance rather than blanket advice or direction. It ...

1. What happens to glucose or galactose when the Cu2 in Benedict’s is reduced? The glucose and galactose both monosaccharaides are oxidized. The cyclic structures of both sugars are opened resorting to an aldehyde group at the end of the aliphatic compound. The aldehyde group is the one that reduces benedict’s solution and oxidizes the sugars. 2. Would you expect fructose or glucose to form a red color rapidly with Seliwanoff’s reagent? Fructose is a ketose therefore, a deep red color will form quickly with Seliwanoff reagent, while glucose an aldose with form a light pink color ...

Abstract

Chymotrypsin is a typical digestive enzyme which is mainly used in the digestion of proteins through a process commonly known as proteolysis. The enzyme chymotrypsin often cleaves bonds of peptide amide preferentially where a carboxyl side of that bond is a tryptophan, phenylalanine or tyrosine.

In this experiment, the chymotrypsin molecules were arranged in such a manner that all the enzyme molecules began the catalytic process at the same time. The rate at which the p-nitrophenol was being generated was initially rapid which was then followed by a much slower hydrolysis rate at steady state.

Therefore, the experiment essentially did sort to establish the concentration ...

New peptide based soft drink

Casein is a family of proteins found in mammalian milk and is generally classified into four types, αS1, αS2, β, κ. The amino acid sequence that makes up for it, largely contain groups of different peptides that are inactive. However, research in the area of finding bioactive peptides in Casein in the last decade has given numerous results. Several βcasein peptides, for instance, are now used as ingredients in protein shakes, energy drinks and other processed foods for their qualities like slow digestion (giving a continuous supply of amino acids and thus nitrogen to the body) and reduction of hypertension, etc.

Assuming that ...

Johann Friedrich Miescher was the first one to introduce us about his finding of an acidic substance which was weak in nature and was present in the nuclei of the WBC present in human beings and the first name given to this substance was “nuclien”. It took few more years for Miescher to research and find out the two components present in the unknown substance and they were “protein” and “nucleic acid”.

As the research on the nucleic acid progressed, it was found that they were the primary components present in chromosomes and a close analysis of the constituents revealed ...